  :      , 19141920
 


 1914      ,         .          ,  ,     ,     ,    .          ,      .

     ,        .        ,       ,  .           ,      .     ,           .





 

  :      , 19141920








  

   

  

  . 

  . 

 . , . 

  . 



 Eugene Rogan, 2015

The moral right of the author has been asserted

    , , .   -, 2018



  .      .                        ,         ,           .             5.  (. 49 ),            6  (. 146  ).


* * *


      







  


          .         ,  , ,          ,   .      ,           ,    .    ,      -    ,     ,        .

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       ,       .                 ,     ,     .  14         .     ,       .   1914     ,          (   ).     8-        ,   ,     .    1915             ,   .

  1915                   ,             .         , 29 ,       ,         .         .             ,  .

     ,     - ,     .                  .  ,         ,    ,   .          ,   , -          : "   ? !"       : "  !"   ,       [1 - Colonel J. M. Findlay, With the 8th Scottish Rifles, 19141919 (London: Blockie, 1926), 21.].

                 (,    ).      ,      ,       .   ,          ,        .    :         -   ,      ,          ,    [2 - Findlay, With the 8th Scottish Rifles, 34.].

             .   ,     ࠖ    ,          .     11  .     ,        .   ,         .           .               .    ,    .         1918 ,             .      ,          .

         .                .      :   ,  ,              ,        .          .

   ,    .                 .   1916 ,          ,                 -.  ,      ,     .        ,                .  -      ,  ,        .

         . ,   2013     YouGov, ,   46             .         ,         .  ,      ,       [3 -  -    YouGov    , , , , ,      2013     .         :               ?,  ,  2014.; http://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/publications/remember-the-world (http://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/publications/remember-the-world).].

       2005 ,       .   ,        頖      100   ,    .             ,             ,     ,  28     ,         .

   ,       (    ,    ),     .   ,     ,  1400    蠖    ,      3800 ,      14 000 .      ,             1915.      .              ,       .          ,     .     ,    , 28 ,     ,           .

   ,  ,                .   ,   ,     .       ,   - (--)   ,   頖     ,                      .       ,        ,        ,           .  100            ,              ࠖ   ,        .

         ⠖   .       ,     ,        ,    ,           .     .           (Askeri Tarih ve Stratejic Et?t Baskanligi Arsivi,  ATASE)         .      .     ,      ,      ⠖    .       ,      .                          .       ,            ,        ,    [4 -             ; .       : Mehmed Fasih, Gallipoli 1915: Bloody Ridge (Lone Pine) Diary of Lt. Mehmed Fasih (Istanbul: Denizler Kitabevi, 2001),           -: Ihsan Turjman, Year of the Locust: A Soldier's Diary and the Erasure of Palestine's Ottoman Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).          : Falih Rifki Atay, Le mont des Oliviers: L'empire Ottoman et le Moyen-Orient, 19141918 (Paris: Turquoise, 2009).  ,         ,   : Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); M. Talha ?i?ek, War and State Formation in Syria: Cemal Pasha's Governorate During World War I, 191417 (London: Routledge, 2014); Edward J. Erickson, Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001); Hikmet ?zdemir, The Ottoman Army, 19141918: Diseasecand Death on the Battlefield (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008).].

   ,    ,        .    ,               ,            .              ,         頖  ,         .         ,  ⠖    ,         ,     .

      ,    ,       ,        .          ,  - ,  ,      .            ,            .  ,     蠖      ,         ,   ,   , , , ,   , , , ,  , ,   .      ,         .

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           .      -        1915      ,         .                 . ,   ,        .

           ,   ,   ,       .          .          ,      .      ,           ,   .        ,  , ,  , ,    , , , ,   .              .

     .              .    XIII                ,   ,    II   1453    ,      .

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             .      젖  ,     II,   蠖    ,    - .   1699          .   XIX      -        .       (18211829)    . ,       1878 ,         ,   .

        ࠖ  1878  1882      ,  1881    ,   1878        .         ,              .      ,   , ,         .  1908      ,       - II (  1876  1909 ).                         .







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1.    19081913.


   1908  1913          .     1908         .          .                   .            .   ,         1914           .

   1908    - II     .       ࠖ ,    ,              .    蠖     ,      ,    ,  ,    1876      .  ,         .       1876         ,       ,   .        .        -     .

,  -    ,          .         .  1875      ,          .        1876  ,      [1 -    1876           (The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East). . .],          .            .  ,    .         ,        -   -,    1861 ,   .             .  ,    .    V            .  -   31  1876  33- -   .

            ,             ,    ,          .   -    ,        ,   .    1876      ,  19  1877      .       ,         .

         ,     .      ,   1453     蠖 젖    .          .             ,       .    XIX         ,         ,     .        ,      ,      ,        - .   1876               .             ,   1877      .

           젖      ,   ,       .         .    ,  - II        .     ,       ,   XVI     ,   ,   ,  .    -,         ,            .

 ,  -    ,          .     ,   1877         1878     .      ,       ,         ,   () :      .    ,      .          ,      .   ,       ,     ,      .      -   ,            .        .        ,    1878           ,     [5 -       : Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 2:187.].

      ,   ,      堖  1878 ,      . ,       ,  , , -  ,      ,   - ,     .                     .         堖 ,   ,              .       -.

    .   ,     .  1881    .  1878      ,        1882         .   ,      - II  ,               .     ,     1882  1908     ,          .

   -     ,   .      ,   ,     ,        .            񻠖     ,    1900- .           ,         .   1908  ?             ,   [6 -     .: Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 19081914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); M. S?kr? Hanioglu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 19021908 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Erik J. Z?rcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I. B. Tauris, 1993).].

  1908             .         .   1908       -              ,       1876 .    ,           .        .      ,         .      ,             ʸ  .       ,      .

        ,             .   , 23       .      (-),             .   65-          .       ,     .

     -      .    ,  .        .         .         .               ,      .  ,        ,      [7 -  - II   : Fran?ois Georgeon, Abd?lhamid II: Le sultan calife (Paris: Fayard, 2003), 401.].

       .        :     ,          .         ,   24 ,        .                ,      .       (   ),   ,         .          堖   ,     ,   ,  .            ,   ,       . ,  ,   ![8 -        : Fran?ois Georgeon, Abd?lhamid II, 404.       : Andrew Mango, Atat?rk (London: John Murray, 1999), 80.]

       -     , , ,          ,     .      ,            .

          ,     ,  , ,   ,          -         .           ,     ,        .       :         ,        , ,   .           [9 -    [Thawrat al-Arab]   (Cairo: Matba`a al-Muqattam, 1916), 49.].

              ,        -.         .       ,      ,       ,    .   ,    ,           ,  ,    ,    ,     [10 -           (Muhammad Izzat Darwaza, Nash'at al-Haraka al-`Arabiyya al-Haditha, 2nd ed., Sidon and Beirut: Manshurat al-Maktaba al-`Asriyya, 1971), 277.].

               .            ,      .

		   堖  !
		         .
		   ,    ;
		    ;
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		    ,   ![11 - Darwaza, Nash'at al-Haraka, 286.]

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,     ,         .       񻠖    - II   .          , ,  ,          ,    ࠖ    .  -  1908      ,  .  ,       軠 蠖 .             2540 ,       ,   ,      .         (-) -,         ,   ,        .

    ,      ,      .         .  堖  1908    20 ,    .     ,       ,          .          100 ,               [12 - Z?rcher, Turkey, 98.].

,     ,  ,                .     ,   ,    .   1908         .    -           .    , 6 ,       .            ,       .

        .          ,         1908 ,         ,       .       ,       .           ,  -  ,      .          .         ,  -,          ,   ,        .

      ,        ,        .       ,         .       ,         ,   ,      .     ,       ,        蠖  ,   ,       .    -    ,      .

   12  13  1909        .                .     ,             .     ,         ,      ()              . -   ,    .    .  ,    ,        .

  -  .             ,       .               ,   ,  17      .   24       ,  ,    ,    .            27      - II.        V .   ,             .

        ,      - .    ,        ,             - .       1870- ,          ,           .

 1909          .   ,                 .          ,         (       ),            :        .           (  ),    ,   ,      .      .  ,        ,       蠖 ,            .

           1878 .     -              ,   .                    .         ,      ,  .              ࠖ         .           ,         ,     ,         .  ,          ,     [13 -  61-      : The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, ed. J. C. Hurewitz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 1:413414.  .: H. F. B. Lynch, Armenia: Travels and Studies, Vol. 2: The Turkish Provinces (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1901), 408411 [ . . . :    .  2  ].].

                       .  ,            蠖  ,       .       (,   )   ,          .   -     ,               .    1880-            ,                   ,  , ,    .

  XIX       .  1887      ,      ,    (- ),   1890             ,      (    ),   .         .           ,                  .          .      ,       .                .     ,      ,           .     [14 - Dikran Mesob Kaligian, Armenian Organization and Ideology Under Ottoman Rule, 19081914 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2011), 12.].

   1894  1896         .     1894     ,   - ,  -               ,       .          .      ,     ,     :   頖     ,    ,      "!".     , ,    ,  ,            .   ,       ,    .        ,          ,     ໠     [15 - Lynch, Armenia, 2:157158.].

  1895              ,        .   48                 ,    -               ,        .        ,          (      ,     -)  ,       .        ,         .        .        .     , 17   -  ,              : , , , ,  ()  .

             .             ,   ,                    蠖          ,    ,       .       ,                  ,       .    ,   1896      37 000 ,  300 000   .         100 000  300 000 .      ,           .     ,     ,               [16 - Georgeon, Abd?lhamid II, 291295.].

               18941896 .                  ,     ,  26  1896   .         150    ,   ,                         .    ,     젖         .     ,              ,    ,      .   ,       ,              .     , ,   ,        ,       8000 .         ,            .       18941896    .

            ,      .  1907            ,       .       1908 ,              .               ,  14       .     ,           ,      ,     .           ,   2528  1909    ,     20 000 [17 - - ,       17 000 ; . : Djemal Pasha, Memories of a Turkish Statesman, 19131919 (London: Hutchinson, n.d.), 261.      ,        ,      20 000; .  "Young Turk-Armenian Relations during the Second Constitutional Period, 19081914"  Feroz Ahmad, From Empire to Republic: Essays on the Late Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Istanbul: Bilgi University Press, 2008), 2:186.            10 000  20 000 ; . : Kaligian, Armenian Organization, 36.].






,      

  1909           .        20 000 .     Bain News Service       .



  ,          ,       ,      .     ,  ,   ,   ,    .      ,            .        ,     .   ,           .   ,   ,               [18 -   : Zabel Essayan, Dans les ruines: Les massacres d'Adana, avril 1909 [   :   ,  1909 ] (Paris: Libella, 2011),      ,    1911.; . 40.].

          .     ,          .          ,             ,    ,         .     ,                30     17   ,       .  ,     ,   ,         ,    [19 - Kaligian, Armenian Organization, 4547; Djemal Pasha, Memories of a Turkish Statesman,].

         ,      .    ,     ,            ( 1830 )   ( 1881 )        1882 . ,     ,          1871          ,     ,    III    .

     ,       1911 .          ,              .          ,        ,     , 29              [20 -        .: Jamil Abun-nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 308312; Mango, Atat?rk, 101111.].

        .      4200       ,        ,    34 000 .        ,    .       1911              (  )   (  ,    )[21 -      ,          1000 .     4200     . . : Philip H. Stoddard, "The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskil?t-i Mahsusa" (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1963), 205206n174.  . : E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), 104124.].

         ,   .      ,      ,         ,      ,       .            .

   1911     ,        .                  .              -   :      .   ,    ,    [  ]              ,  .                .      ,       ,      [22 - M.S?kr? Hanioglu, ed., Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa [ -  ] (Istanbul: Der Yayinlari, 1989), 7578.].

          ,    ,       .        ,           (      ,   ).         ;       .      ,   ,      (            ).  -            [23 - Mango, Atat?rk, 102.].

      ,         .           .                ,  ,    ,   .          .           V.        13  (   1914 ,    17),            .   : ",  ,  ,   -  -",   .       [24 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 9294.  . : Georges Rmond, Aux campes turco-arabes: Notes de route et de guerre en Tripolitaine et en Cyranaique [ ,  - :         ], (Paris: Hachette, 1913).].

     .         蠖 ,   ,   ,   ,         .    ,      ,    .          15 000  ,         .       ,    ,    ,       ( - ,          ).  ,      --       -.     ,        ,              ,         -  ( ),      .

   ,        .                    .      ,             .         ,         .        ,        .     -       ,     ,      -      ⠖    ,     ,    .    ,  :    .    ,      .  ,          ,      ,           [25 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 148153, 185188, 196198.  . : G. F. Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (london: Edward Arnold, 1912).].

    1911   1912             .       ,                  .      ,     3400    4000 .       ,                 25 000     (       ?0,90  $4,40).  -   ,                [26 - Abun-nasr, History of the Maghrib, 310.].

 ,     ,       .  ,       ,                  .     ,            .   1912        ;         (       ,    ),          , , ,    : , ,          .              ,   .              I,    8  1912     .       ,       .

        ,         .          ,       .     .               ,          . -蠖                        ,        ,     .

       .   XIX         -       ,   ,      ,      -.    ,       1830 ,    .  1829             ,   1878       .        ,             1908    .           頖         ,   ,       .               ,       .

      ,      - ,      .   1912  , ,          .            .       715 000 ,    320 000  [27 - L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans Since 1453 (London: Hurst, 2000), 535537.].

       .            ,       .      蠖   ,       .               .      23 .

           .             , 2             ,    40  .   ( ,    ,        )         .    1912       .             蠖           .

       - -.         , -         .       ,        .     ,        .       ,     ,    .           , -          ,         .

    ,        .     ,      1912 .        ,   ,        .      ,    ,       ,  . ,          .      ,          .    ,   ,        [28 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa,   28  1912. 12  1913., 216217, 224.].

  ,  -        ,   .    1913              .      ,          .  ,      -,  ,        -       .      ,   .         V,           .          -,       .             ,          [29 -     23       2328  1913.; Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 224231.  . : Ahmad, The Young Turks, 117123.].

  ,          -,        ,       .  -   ,       .       ,              .          ,   堖    .   򻠖 ,       .       ,          ,     .

  1913     , ,          ,         .            ,     ,  ,   ,      .        (   ).        (   ).       ,  28            .          .

     -     .              ,    30  1913        .      ,       155 400 .     4 ,           ,   ,    .    - ,     .

          ,   .       ,          .          .             ,    .       ,            ,     .  ,       ,        .

, ,   ,    ,    .      ,   , ,  ,           ,     . ,          .   ,   ,   ,    .  ,         ,          .  XIX         .                 ,         [30 -   : Nniyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1998), 358.].

       .              -   1913    ,    .  ,   ,               . ,         ,     ,    ,          . ,    ,      .  ,            ,    -    .

   ,    ,    .              .    , 12         24 ,     ,   ,     .         .   ,  -   .    1908         ,        .

  1913     -,      ,   .             . ,       ,         . -     . -,       ,   1914     . -   .   1913         ,           ( -).

       ,    1913 ,    ,    .  ,       .      ,          ,   ,       .          ,         ,         .          ,       .    ,        ,    .      ,         ,     -         .    29  30  1913          ,     .

           ,        .        ,        .     ,    ,    ,         -, ,          .  ,       ,        ,  ,    ,  .   ,    .   ,               [31 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 247248.].

 8     ,      .   ,         .        ,    .      ,         .        ,       .    ,     ,  ,    ,   .        [32 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa;   2  1913., 249250.].

      ?   ,           10    .        .     ,          .       .                   .      ,     .  ,  ,       ,   ,     ,         [33 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa,   2  1913., 249250.].

                      1908 .            ,    .    ,      ,     ,      .  ,      ,     ,         .        ,          .

            蠖        ,      .  1909         ,          .  -      ,         .    ,                    ,    .                         .            .

        ,    .            -    ,    .       ,       .    ,         ,      [34 -    ,        . : George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), 101125; Eliezer Tauber, The Emergence of the Arab Movements (London: Frank Cass, 1993).].

                   .   ,    - (    -' -' -),         1909 . -             -    - .        -:   蠖       .  ,          ,   [35 -   : Zeine n. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism, 3rd ed. (New York: Caravan Books, 1973), 84.].

 1912    -        .       ,   ,  , ,        ,      頖    ,       .                .            ,             .

         .             -         .    1913           ,   : 8 1913          .                  .      ,       ,  ,              .           ,       ,        .

       ,        .  -       , ,   ,           .          , ,   .            , 23     蠖 11 , 11    頖   ,       ,   18  1913    150 .

   -      ,      (       ,   ).      .       .  ,      ,   .       .    ,         1912    ,   .        ,       .    -       [36 - .   -: Tawfiq al-Suwaydi, My Memoirs: Half a Century of the History of Iraq and the Arab Cause (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 2013), 60.      .  . 6268.].

  ,  ,         .      ,          .     -,         .     ,     ,                 ,      .

         ,     .                  .   ,                      . ,  ,         ,    .    ,           軠      .           .    23     .

            : 30      ,    ,     ,   ,  11       -.    ,          ,           .         ,     .     ,           ,      ,         .

    ,                 .  -       , ,   ,    ""        .       ,        . ,            ,        ,          [37 -      .: Tauber, Emergence of the Arab Movements, 198212.].

      ,    .     ,       .     ,   ,    -,    젖 ,   .      ,           - .

          ,             .    -: ,         ,       ,    ,    ,      .   1913        .    ,         ,  , ,   ,    ,       .                      [38 - Suwaydi, My Memoirs, 68.  - -,    ,  -   - -,   -,       1916.].

  ,  1908  1913 ,    ,         ,           ,         . ,      ,   .                ,    .                   .   1908 ,    ,   1913               젖  - ,   젖   .

         .        .     ,      ,  , ,       ,      ,      .              ,       ,     .                         [39 - Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa,   2  1913., 249250.].

    , , ,  ,        .   ,        ,        .    ,       ,   ,       .         -     .

         .        ,       ,      .  ,                 .  ,      1914     .           頖  頖 .




2.   


 1914        .                 .                    .    .           .            ,     .         ,            .

            .  1908       .       ,       .       . ,         ,   ,         .      ,           ,        . ,   1908         .   1913 ,          ,     ,         500 250    .    ,   ,         .    1914        ,   ,  , ,          [40 -      [NARA], ,  284,       , 3  1914.].

         .         :                ,   1903 .            ,     .   ,  25  1909       -,        .  -        ,         ,    [41 - B. A. Elliot, Blriot: Herald of an Age (Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2000), 165.].

 1911         .  1914         .    -      -蠖 -           .  ,       -  ( ),   40      20     96/.         .     ,           ,          .   ,    ,    . -  -            .       .     -  -             1914 [42 - NARA, ,  285, -        , 16  1914.].

  1914                ( ).       ,   24    300           .      ,    .            ,     ,       ,           .              [43 - NARA,,  285,    ,     "", 15  1914.].

     ,     1914 .             $100,         ,     ,  ,  ,         .             .

     ,        ,          .               ,       ,   .                     .

     1913 ,    ,          .     (),      ( ),        .              80.               .                  ,      ,    -     .

  1911       Vickers Limited  Armstrong Whitworth   ,         1914 .       -      .              ,        .              ,           .       ,          ,                .      ,    -          .          .   1914      .                   .

                   .        ,   ,         .             1914        ,            ,          [44 - NARA, ,  282,     29  1914.,   ,         .].

           -.      -   ,  ,      :         .    ,    90   ,    .          ,                .        ,         ,     ,       [45 - Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 4256.].

        .      ,        ,     ,       .                 ,      ,       .  , -       ,              .   1914      ,       ,    ,           .   1914    II              ,         [46 - Michael A. Reynolds, Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 19081918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 3641.].

   ,         .                 - ,       .  ,      ⠖ , , ,  (),   ,     ,      .       1,25 ,   1          .   1878                .             [47 - Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia and the End of the Empire (New York: New York University Press, 1983), 4788.     ,         19111912.  865 000 ,      ,     1912.    1018 .  ,      -- (  蠖  ).].

         .  ,       1890- ,           1908 .   ,    ,     .   1909           ,     .        ,          -,   -.  ,                   1912     .        [48 - Roderic H. Davison, "The Armenian Crisis, 19121914", American Historical Review 53 (April 1948): 481505.].

  1913 ,   ,    ,   ?    .     ,   - II  1895 ,             ,     -,   .      ,        .            젖              . -            - ,       堖     .    ,       ,    8  1914 .

               ,               .           . -,       ,            ,      [49 - Taner Ak?am, The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 129135.].

      ,           ,      .    ,        .          ,       ,        .         ,       .        .

-     .  1898    II      .   ,       ,      .              :      ,        ,    ,         [50 -   : Sean McMeekin, The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power, 18981918 (London: Allen Lane, 2010), 14.].

,        .                      .  ,     ,     ,    ,       ,        ,    .          ,        100 ,         ,       .

         ,    .                  ,     .             .                  .

,        ,         .   XIX               ,              (   ), , ,   .          1898          ,           ,    .

  1899                        .    1903 ; 1914             .                .  ,   ?        ,           [51 - NARA, ,  295,     3  1915.      3  1915.; McMeekin, The Berlin-Baghdad Express, 233258.].

       1  1914    .     60        .         ,            ,  ,   .  ,    1914          .      10        ,    120  4 ,    30  .          10 .           ,                 [52 - NARA, Baghdad box 19,     2  1914. 10  1914.].

                1913          .    -     II             ,            .          ,      22-     .          ,           .              1913      .

        ,      .          -  ,  -,    ,       .        . ,  ,         ,    ,       - .   ,       ,      ,     ,          ,     . ,   ,        ,     .        1914 ,         .       .      , , ,   ,   :  ,     .  ,   ![53 -             : Otto Liman von Sanders, Five Years in Turkey (Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute, 1927), 112.]




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notes









1


   1876           (The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East). . .










1


Colonel J. M. Findlay, With the 8th Scottish Rifles, 19141919 (London: Blockie, 1926), 21.




2


Findlay, With the 8th Scottish Rifles, 34.




3


 -    YouGov    , , , , ,      2013     .         :               ?,  ,  2014.; http://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/publications/remember-the-world (http://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/publications/remember-the-world).




4


            ; .       : Mehmed Fasih, Gallipoli 1915: Bloody Ridge (Lone Pine) Diary of Lt. Mehmed Fasih (Istanbul: Denizler Kitabevi, 2001),           -: Ihsan Turjman, Year of the Locust: A Soldier's Diary and the Erasure of Palestine's Ottoman Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).          : Falih Rifki Atay, Le mont des Oliviers: L'empire Ottoman et le Moyen-Orient, 19141918 (Paris: Turquoise, 2009).

  ,         ,   : Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); M. Talha ?i?ek, War and State Formation in Syria: Cemal Pasha's Governorate During World War I, 191417 (London: Routledge, 2014); Edward J. Erickson, Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001); Hikmet ?zdemir, The Ottoman Army, 19141918: Diseasecand Death on the Battlefield (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008).




5


      : Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 2:187.




6


    .: Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 19081914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); M. S?kr? Hanioglu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 19021908 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Erik J. Z?rcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I. B. Tauris, 1993).




7


 - II   : Fran?ois Georgeon, Abd?lhamid II: Le sultan calife (Paris: Fayard, 2003), 401.




8


       : Fran?ois Georgeon, Abd?lhamid II, 404.       : Andrew Mango, Atat?rk (London: John Murray, 1999), 80.




9


   [Thawrat al-Arab]   (Cairo: Matba`a al-Muqattam, 1916), 49.




10


          (Muhammad Izzat Darwaza, Nash'at al-Haraka al-`Arabiyya al-Haditha, 2nd ed., Sidon and Beirut: Manshurat al-Maktaba al-`Asriyya, 1971), 277.




11


Darwaza, Nash'at al-Haraka, 286.




12


Z?rcher, Turkey, 98.




13


 61-      : The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, ed. J. C. Hurewitz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 1:413414.  .: H. F. B. Lynch, Armenia: Travels and Studies, Vol. 2: The Turkish Provinces (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1901), 408411 [ . . . :    .  2  ].




14


Dikran Mesob Kaligian, Armenian Organization and Ideology Under Ottoman Rule, 19081914 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2011), 12.




15


Lynch, Armenia, 2:157158.




16


Georgeon, Abd?lhamid II, 291295.




17


- ,       17 000 ; . : Djemal Pasha, Memories of a Turkish Statesman, 19131919 (London: Hutchinson, n.d.), 261.      ,        ,      20 000; .  "Young Turk-Armenian Relations during the Second Constitutional Period, 19081914"  Feroz Ahmad, From Empire to Republic: Essays on the Late Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Istanbul: Bilgi University Press, 2008), 2:186.            10 000  20 000 ; . : Kaligian, Armenian Organization, 36.




18


  : Zabel Essayan, Dans les ruines: Les massacres d'Adana, avril 1909 [   :   ,  1909 ] (Paris: Libella, 2011),      ,    1911.; . 40.




19


Kaligian, Armenian Organization, 4547; Djemal Pasha, Memories of a Turkish Statesman,




20


       .: Jamil Abun-nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 308312; Mango, Atat?rk, 101111.




21


     ,          1000 .     4200     . . : Philip H. Stoddard, "The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskil?t-i Mahsusa" (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1963), 205206n174.  . : E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), 104124.




22


M.S?kr? Hanioglu, ed., Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa [ -  ] (Istanbul: Der Yayinlari, 1989), 7578.




23


Mango, Atat?rk, 102.




24


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 9294.  . : Georges Rmond, Aux campes turco-arabes: Notes de route et de guerre en Tripolitaine et en Cyranaique [ ,  - :         ], (Paris: Hachette, 1913).




25


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 148153, 185188, 196198.  . : G. F. Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (london: Edward Arnold, 1912).




26


Abun-nasr, History of the Maghrib, 310.




27


L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans Since 1453 (London: Hurst, 2000), 535537.




28


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa,   28  1912. 12  1913., 216217, 224.




29


    23       2328  1913.; Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 224231.  . : Ahmad, The Young Turks, 117123.




30


  : Nniyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (New York: Routledge, 1998), 358.




31


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa, 247248.




32


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa;   2  1913., 249250.




33


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa,   2  1913., 249250.




34


   ,        . : George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), 101125; Eliezer Tauber, The Emergence of the Arab Movements (London: Frank Cass, 1993).




35


  : Zeine n. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism, 3rd ed. (New York: Caravan Books, 1973), 84.




36


.   -: Tawfiq al-Suwaydi, My Memoirs: Half a Century of the History of Iraq and the Arab Cause (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 2013), 60.      .  . 6268.




37


     .: Tauber, Emergence of the Arab Movements, 198212.




38


Suwaydi, My Memoirs, 68.  - -,    ,  -   - -,   -,       1916.




39


Hanioglu, Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa,   2  1913., 249250.




40


     [NARA], ,  284,       , 3  1914.




41


B. A. Elliot, Blriot: Herald of an Age (Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2000), 165.




42


NARA, ,  285, -        , 16  1914.




43


NARA,,  285,    ,     "", 15  1914.




44


NARA, ,  282,     29  1914.,   ,         .




45


Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 4256.




46


Michael A. Reynolds, Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 19081918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 3641.




47


Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia and the End of the Empire (New York: New York University Press, 1983), 4788.     ,         19111912.  865 000 ,      ,     1912.    1018 .  ,      -- (  蠖  ).




48


Roderic H. Davison, "The Armenian Crisis, 19121914", American Historical Review 53 (April 1948): 481505.




49


Taner Ak?am, The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 129135.




50


  : Sean McMeekin, The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power, 18981918 (London: Allen Lane, 2010), 14.




51


NARA, ,  295,     3  1915.      3  1915.; McMeekin, The Berlin-Baghdad Express, 233258.




52


NARA, Baghdad box 19,     2  1914. 10  1914.




53


            : Otto Liman von Sanders, Five Years in Turkey (Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute, 1927), 112.


