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Annotation: In 1397, in the city of Kalmar, in connection with the coronation of King Erik of Pomerania, two documents were passed by the delegates from Sweden, Denmark and Norway  the coronation act and the treaty on eternal union. The circumstances, under which the latter document was created, were somewhat obscure; the text had strange peculiarities, and its legal force could be put into question. Subsequently, many prominent Scandinavian politicians lacked a definite knowledge of the contents of the union treaty. Regarding the formal aspect of the meeting of 1397, there were two different results: 1) the perfectly drawn, commonly acknowledged act on the personal union, and 2) the ambiguous, loosely known agreement on the eternal alliance. Yet the practical outcome consisted in the fact that the union became a reality. Its history was full of contradictions, cooperation and conflicts, search of compromise, clashes of political interests and struggle for power between Scandinavian noble factions.

Key words: history, international relations, the Middle Ages, scandinavian countries, the Union of Kalmar


  ,       XIV   XVI    .   ,        .     1397     ;      .

   :   ,    ,  ,         .         -, - [1, . 405430; 2, . 114128].

   XIV .            (13641389 .).        ,    .            .       .      IV              ,      ,     .  ,    ,      .

 1387 .   .       .         ,     .           ,    1396 .,              , ,  1388 .,    .

 1397 .      ,           .      :           .

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  :          ,   .        .         ;        .      ,      .    .         ,    ,        .         . -       , ,         .            ,        . ,         ,    ,    ,    -   ,             - .

          ,   ,       ,       ,  ,   ,     ,    [3, s. 3137].

  ,     , .  : 1425 .           [3, s. 36].   : ,   ,   .     :    ,     .   ,         ,  .  ,     ,   .   ,   ,   ,   .

            XVI .  ,     ,          ,      .         XVIXVII ,               .

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     . - (40  XIX .),     :  ,   ;     ;        ,        .

- ,       ,   .         [4].

      .. .       .   :        ;     .    :        ,   .  17 , ,    ,    .       ,             ,        .  ,     ,      ,          [5, s. 567595].

     . .   ,   :    ,   ,         .      ,      [6, s. 115142].

        . ˸.   ,   ˸,   : ,     ,  ,    .      ,        ,   ,       ,       . , ,   .    ,   - ,    .        .

 ,  ˸,   ,           . ,   ˸   ,   ;                [7, s. 3267].

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      .   ,         .        ,    :  , ,  . ,          . ,  , ,      ,   ,       - .

       :       .     ,         . , ,   : ,    X. ,     [9, s. 73104].

  XIX   XX .    . .   ,       .   1960 .    . -,     .  :       .         :            [10, s. 140].

    .    ,    .  .   . ,   1396 .,     ,   ,             ,   -   .    1397         . , ,  ;     .          .         ,     .           :           .          ,     -   .   , , ,  ,  ,      .             ,    ,            ,            .             ,                 .

     .      XIVXV .,    8090-  XIV .,        , , ,      .        . ,          ,   [11, s. 166171].

      1397 .  .           .    :       .       ,     .            .    1397 .,  ,      :   ,           ,    .     .

             ,       .    1434 .  ,   ,     .   ,       .        .  1439 .         .  1440 .      .     1397 .,       .       ,     .     ,  -       .

  .        .      .        ,       ,   .         ,      .        , ,  ,  .  ,  -  ,   .      .       ,    .   (    )  ,   .

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     .      I.      ;       .    1471 .      . ,     I      ,   .             .   :  1471 .     -  .

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          .          1483 ,     .        .    .              .         .       ,      1483 .

       1483 .              ,       ,       ,    .       [12, s. 2053].   -     1484 .       ;          .      ,       (   II   )           .  1523      .

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1. ..    XIIXV  //  . .,1992. . II. . 405430.

2.  ..     .    ( XIV   XVI .) //  . ., 1974. . 114128.

3. Norges gamle love. R?kke II / Utg. A. Taranger. Christiania, 1912. Bd. I. 288 S.

4. Paludan-M?ller C. Observationes criticae de foedere inter Daniam, Sveciam et Norvegiam auspiciis Margaretae reginae icto / C. Paludan-M?ller. K?benhavn, 1840.

5. Sveriges traktater med fr?mmande makter jemte andra dit h?rande handlingar / Utg. O.S. Rydberg. Stockholm, 1883. Bd. II.

6. Weilbull L. 1397 ?rs unionsbrev och dess r?ttsgiltighet. Scandia. Stockholm, 1931. Bd. 4. S. 115142.

7. L?nnroth E. Unionsdokumenten i Kalmar 1397. Stockholm et al., 1958. B. 24. S. 3267.

8. Christensen A.E. Erik af Pommerens danske kongemagt. Stockholm, 1951. Bd. 21. S. 4460.

9. Koht . Dronning Margareta og Kalmar-unionen. Oslo, 1956.

10. Skyum-Nielsen N. Ett videnskabligt falsum i debatten om Kalmarunionen. Stockholm, 1960. Bd. 26. S. 140.

11. Christensen A.E. Kalmarunionen og nordisk politik. Copenhagen, 1980.

12. Carlsson G. Kalmar recess 1483. Stockholm, 1955.




    





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Annotation: Author comes to the conclusion that lot oracles took considerable part in the political life of Greece in V BCE. Consultations of Cimon, Alcibiades and Lysander in the shrines of Dodona and Libya give us a remarkable evidence of that fact. Comparative analysis of the consultations revealed that politicians tried to gain oracles support in their home and foreign policy.

Key words: Lot oracles, Dodona, Amun, Cimon, Alcibiades, Lysander.


         .       ,              . ,   V.  ..       [14]. ,          ,  ,      .           .  ,     ,      .       -,         .       ,    .     ?            ?        ?

      ,    ,       .           .                   [18, c. 40].         [2, XVI, 233 .].

 ,           [7, VII, 21, 1].      ,      . .  ,         [24, c. 91],        .             ,    .    [10, 244, b]       (        ), ..,      ,      .          .

    ,   ,   ( , ,   . .),       .      ,        [16, I, 34, 76].     [25, c. 100, c. 259]    ,    ,     ,  .    ,   ,    ,       .    ,            [24, c. 92] ,        .      .          [24, c. 92].

        ,       ,        ,   .   ,               [10, 244, a].  ,      ,          .

       .      ,   ,         ,            (??????????)  .

   [26, VII, 329]     ,      ,   .        ,       ,         ,    . ,    ,     ,      [5, c. 178].

       .  ,     ,        ,      [1, III, 466]. ,         ,         [5, c. 179].

        ,         .      ,   .   ,            ,        ,         .

              V .  .. , ,      .          .   ,      -    459 .  . .     ,        200  [27, I, 104; 109-110], [3, IX, 71; 7475; XII, 3].   450449 .  ..     .        ,           .

  ,        ,          ,      .        ,        [11, 18],    ,       ,  ,           .      ,     ,     -   .      ,     , ,   . ,           ,  ,       .

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                .      ,     ,   . ,      ,           ,   ,      ,   ,     ,  .         ,   ,  ,    , . . .

  , ,     [13, . 13].  ,     ,      . ,             . ,               [4, c. 341].       .  [23, c. 199].  . .     :        [4, c. 341].

        .      ,  -    ,       .       -   ,      [13, . 13], [17, c. 31].   ,   ,  . ,        ,                ,         .

   [7, VIII, XI, 12]           ,     ,       .     ,        .   ( . .),      ,         ..             ,  ,       ,    .

     ,        .

       ,       [12;13].          [8, c. 440]     .  403 .  ..     [12; 21],   ,  ,   ,        [23, c. 203].

          .    ,    ,          .           ,          ,     [9, I, 624].    ,                 [20, c. 9295].

       . ,   ,     :  ,             ,            . ,          [12; 25].         .    :  ,    ,      [12; 30].  ,             ,   ,      [21, c. 311].          ,        [8, c. 451].

  ,   ,        .        [12; 26].  ,     ,        ,      ,     ,           .

    -,    ,       ,       ,       .           .     ,  , ,     [23, c. 204].       -      [12; 26]. ,      ,     -     [12; 25].

     ,       .     ,          .   .     ,     , ,     [22, c. 48].      . .   ,                           .     ,   ,   [8, c. 47].       ,       .

         402 .  .. [8, c. 442].      ,           [6, c. 170; 12; 20; 25; 7, III, 18; 3; 3, XIV; 13, . 67].         ,   . ,       ,        ,        .  ,         [15, c. 16;19, c. 34],        ,    [3, XIV; 13; 6].

     ,    ,     ,         . ,             [12; 25; 3, XIV; 13; 7].    ,    [12; 25].

 ,     V.  ..  .        . ,    ,         ,           ,    .     ,      ,            .

              ,     ,                ,      .         (        ),              ,      ,   .


    

1..  / . . . ., 2018.

2. .  / . .. ; . . .. . ., 1990.

3.  .  . . IVVII.   / . . .. . ., 2005.

4.  . .        (VIIV .  ..). ., 2001.

5.  . .   . ., 1997. . 2.

6.  .    / . . . . ., 1998.

7. .   / . .. . ., 1996.

8.  . .  .    . ., 2002.

9. .  // , ,  / . .. . ., 2014.

10. .  / . .. . ., 2017.

11. . . //   / . .. , .. . ., 1990.

12. .  //   / . .. . ., 1990.

13. .  //   / . .. . ., 1990.

14.  ..        V .  ..: , ,         VIIV .  .. ., 2002.

15. Beloch K. J. Geschiche Geschichte. Bd. III, Berlin; Leipzig, 1922.

16. M. Tullius Cicero. De divinatione / Edidit R. Giomini // M. Tullius Cicero. Scripta quae manserunt omnia. Leipzig, 1975.

17. Fakhry A. The Egyptian deserts Siwa Oasis. Its History and Antiquities. Cairo, Government Press, Bul?q, 1944.

18. Farnell L. R. The Cults of Greek States. Vol. I., Oxford., Clarendon Press, 1896.

19. Herman G. Ritualised friendship and the Greek city. Cambridge, 1987.

20. Hamilton C. Spartas Bitter Victories. Ithaca; New York; London, 1979.

21. Hamilton C. Spartan Politics and Policy, 405-401 B. C. // AJPh. Vol. 91. 1970, 3, 294-314.

22. Meyer Ed. Geschichte des Altertums Bd. V., Stuttgart; Berlin, 1902.

23. Parke H. W., Wormell D. E. W. The Delphic Oracle.Oxford, 1956. Vol. III, Vol. I.

24. Parke H. W. Greek Oracles. London, 1967.

25. Parke H. W. Oracles of Zeus: Dodona, Olympia, Ammon. Cambridge, 1967.

26. Straboni Geographica / Recognovit A. Meineke. Vol. 13. Lipsiae, 1877.

27. Thucydidis Historiae / Recensuit C. Hude. Vol. III. Lipsiae, 1901.




-      (III . ..)




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 ,     1613 . 



:  III . ..         .        ,           .           .                    .      260 .     ,        . ,              ?

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Annotation: in the III century. AD In Asia, a new state formation  Sasanid Iran  appears. The new dynasty starts realizing its foreign policy doctrine, the essence of which was the restoration of the Persian state within the borders of the Achaemenid kingdom. However, in the West, the Persians had the strongest rival in the person of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two states for several centuries were a series of military conflicts and clashes for hegemony in the front Asian region. The new war with Rome in 260 completely defeated the imperial troops, as a result of which the Roman emperor was captivated by the eastern conquerors. So, what contributed to the military successes of the Persians in relations with Rome after a series of conflicts Parthians?

Key words: parthians, Sasanides, Ardashir I, Shapur I, Herodian, Valerian, Philippe Arab.


-          ,           [5].

           53 .  ..  226 . ..  ,               ,    [1].  53 .  ..       ,      .            ,               [10].

     113 . ..    .            .       ,   .   114 .  -     .    ,      214 .,  .           .

    -     III . ..       ,         [9, c. 23].            ,     .   ,             ,          [5].            .        .          , , ,         ,    ,     [7, c. 111].

  I (224240 .)  ,         ,        ,        .     ,  ,      I,  ,     241 .             260 . [11, c. 42].       ,               ?

  ,       ,            [6, c. 19],     .   230 .   ,      .           [4, c. 59].    ,         ;          ,    . , ,  ,       .              [3].

,            ,    .         ,  ,     ,        [3]  ,       .                   [3].     .      ,       ,      .     .     ,   ,         ,       .       .   ,         ,  ,   ,    ,     ,    .       .   ,        ,        ,     -  [2].       .       I  (235238 .)      ,       [4, c. 60].

      (241242 .)           .       (256259 .)    :          ,        - .           .         XIX .       ( ) [7, c. 26].    .        .              ,     .              ( III),    ( ),   (),      .    ,   ,         ,         ,   [4, c. 68].

           ,        I     III    - ( ).

              .        ,       .       ,          .

      ,          .   ,       ,    ,             .            .          ,    ,  ,   ,  ,          [5].    ,          [5].           ,      [5].

      -      .           . -        ,      .    ,   ,       ,      ,      . ,     ,      ,       ;                      .  ,          ,       [5].       ,      , ,   .      ,   ,  ,    ,     .        ,  II   .             ,     .

      ,      - ,       III .            ,         .       .          ,    .    ,    .   ,      253 .      (249251 .),   (251253 .),  (253 .)   (253260 .).                  - .  ,           I  .

  ,   ,  ,     ,    (Amm. Marc. XXIX. 1. 2).      ,                   .

   I       -  .          ,      :      ,      ,       .          ,                [6, c. 29].

   III .    .            ,        .            III .

 ,           .    ,  ,    .                .    ,   ,     -   , ,  ,    III .          .


    

1.100  . ., 2001. [ ] URL: http://war1960.ru/ancient/rim_parf.shtml (  05.04.2018)

2. ,  . [ ] URL: http://ancientrome.ru/antlitr/t.htm?a=1475001800 (  05.04.2018)

3. .      [ ] URL: https://libking.ru/books/sci-/sci-history/135771-gerodian-istoriya-imperatorskoy-vlasti-posle-marka (  05.04.2018)

4.  ..    . ., 2008.

5.  ..    :       - . [ ] URL: https://history.wikireading.ru/315919 (  05.04.2018.)

6.  ..   ()          (III  VII .). , 2008.

7.  ..  . ., 1977.

8.  ..   . ., 1952.

9.  ..,  ..,  ..,  ..    :    / Iranica.    -   VI .  .. VI . .. , 2017.

10. .  . . 33. [ ] URL: http://ancientrome.ru/antlitr/t.htm?a=1439002800#16 (  05.04.2018)

11.  ..        XVII . ., 1958.




     (   )




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Annotation:The article considers the problem of building an external political strategy as one of the aspects of politogenesi.The external threat or the possibility of capturing an object (sacral or material) is an effective means of consolidation of tribes or clans. However, the effectiveness of this factor of sociopolitical transformations is connected with the development of a long-term strategy.

Key words: politogenesis, the external political strategy, the northern thracians, politogenesis, the Getae, the Dacians


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