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     ,  1970-,        堖     [16 -    ,   , 2015 ;      25  2016 .]. ,   ,          ,         ,   [17 -  .        .  1. [  ] //   . 29  2016  (http://mytashkent.uz/2016/04/29/istorii-o-tashkenttsah-pravdivye-i-ne-vsem-izvestnye-chast1 (http://mytashkent.uz/2016/04/29/istorii-o-tashkenttsah-pravdivye-i-ne-vsem-izvestnye-chast1)).].        ,    ,   , , [18 -    ( 3-  6-   ),   ,  2016 .].

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             1950-    [129 - James Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York: Pegasus, 2009), 28689 and 32933. . : Dwayne Keith Petty, Inside Dawson Forest: A History of the Georgia Nuclear Aircraft Laboratory, Pickens County Progress, January 2, 2007, online at http://archive.li/GMnGk (http://archive.li/GMnGk).].           Lockheed Aircraft  10-            .            ,     300    .   1959             ,       :    ,            (    ).     :  ,  -    ;    .  ,     ,   :    -  ,     ,       ,       .

 ,         ,     .     -,    100,      .

21  1945 ,     ,        ,  -, 24- ,     ,      -   -[130 -  ,  ,  ,  5100  (510 ). Jorgensen, Strange Glow, 111; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York: Pegasus Books, 2014), 5760.].    ,  ,   ,   ,    ,    .          -     500 .         [131 -    -   ,       ,     . .: Ruth H. Howes and Caroline L. Herzenberg, Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 5455.].      ,        ,       .              렖    ,        .  The New York Times    ,      [132 - Atomic Bomb Worker Died From Burns,  New York Times, September 21, 1945. . : Paul Baumann, NL Man Was 1st Victim of Atomic Experiments, The Day, August 6, 1985.].



           .   ,          1942 ,    ,      -239.    ,       .  ,         ,  ,     ,          . -     ,           .                .

     .    ࠖ -1,   501,    ,   29  1949    ,  ,   140  -  [133 - David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 19391956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 213.    ,         -  1945 ,   the Gadget ().].   ,      ,  46-        ,          [134 -  .   ,    .    //  . 10  2013  (www.kp.ru/daily/26012.4/2936276 (http://www.kp.ru/daily/26012.4/2936276)).].         (Fat Man),       ,    ,    ,  ,      [135 -        ,    ,             (Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 183; Schmid, Producing Power, 45).].

               ,       1945           (Atomic Energy for Military Purposes),      [136 - Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 203. The full title of the book was Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb Under the Auspices of the United States Government, 19401945.       50 000      (Josephson, Red Atom, 24).].                [137 -       ()          (   ).          20  1945        . . .]      ,     ,  [138 -          ӻ. Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores A. Medvedev, The Unknown Stalin, translated by Ellen Dahrendorf (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 133; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York: Knopf, 2004), 5012.].              .  1950        700 000 ,     ,  50 000 ,       [139 - Medvedev and Medvedev, Unknown Stalin, 134 and 162.].          ,            ,      ,   .     .     ,       ,      [140 - Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 21819.]. ,      ,    ,    ,        , ,     .  ,     ,         .

      ,       .  1950             -     ,   ,      ,         .   ,      ,        .             [141 -  , 347.].     1952      ,     -      ()[142 - Josephson, Red Atom, 2026.].

            ,  ,  .          ,    [143 - Galeand Lax, Radiation, 48.].       ,          5   [144 - Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 307 and 317.].     ,               .       ,     [145 - Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010), 10611.].      ,            .         .    ,      ,    [146 - Josephson, Red Atom, 173.].

   1955              ,     .      20 ,         ,      [147 - Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 113.].  ,  27             -1.

    ,     ,     -1 (-1).       ,  ,   .       ,   , -1   5  .       ,     ,             [148 - Schmid, Producing Power, 97.].             .

     1953    ,     [149 - Montefiore, Stalin, 652.].      [150 - Schmid, Producing Power, 45 and 230n29.].    蠖      ᠖    ,     .         ,    ,        1980     젖   -[151 -   ,     -     (Lost Horizn)      (1937). . .],     [152 - Josephson, Red Atom, 11.].       ,         .

  -1        , , ,           [153 -  , 45.]. ,      ,    ,           ,       . ,   -1,   ,      ,   ,                     [154 - Paul Josephson, Rockets, Reactors, and Soviet Culture, in Loren Graham, ed., Science and the Soviet Social Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 174.].     , -        ⻠         [155 - Josephson, Red Atom, 11].

       ,     [156 -  , 25. Schmid, Producing Power, 45.].         ,        .       ,   ,   ,         .     ,     ,       ,   ̠  黠    [157 -  , 46.].

      [158 - Josephson, Red Atom, 2627.].



           ,          .             ,    .     : ,    .

        .     -235    ⠖   ,           .   ,    ,        ,     ,     [159 - Evelyn Mervine, Natures Nuclear Reactors: The 2-Billion-Year-Old Natural Fission Reactors in Gabon, Western Africa, Scientific American, July 13, 2011.].      2  ,     蠖    100  (,   1000  ),     ,       .

          ,            .               ,             ,     ,         .

       ,  ,     ,       ,  .         ,                ,      .       蠖  .  -      ,       .

     ,   ,  :     1    30    [160 - Ray L. Lyerly and Walter Mitchell III, Nuclear Power Plants, rev. ed. (Washington, DC: Atomic Energy Commission, 1973), 3; Bertrand Barr, Fundamentals of Nuclear Fission, in Gerard M. Crawley, ed., Energy from the Nucleus: The Science and Engineering of Fission and Fusion (Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishing, 2016), 3.].  99% ,     ,    蠖  ,    20 000/.         ,         10 .          [161 -  (shake)   ,     10   10


 . . .]    two shakes of a lambs tail,    .   ,        -  [162 - Chuck Hansen, U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988), 11.].  ,   1% ,   ,  ,      ? ,      [163 - World Nuclear Association, Physics of Uranium and Nuclear Energy, updated February 2018, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy.aspx; Robert Goldston and Frank Von Hippel,   , 2018 .].    ,   ,     ,      .

       ,     ,      .     ,     ,    [164 - Goldston and Von Hippel,   , 2018 .].      ,       .       ,     젖            .               ,    .             1%        :     ,          ,          .   ,  ,     ,   ,     ,     ,         .

           ,     ,   ,     [165 -       GLEEP (Graphite Low Energy Experimental Pile),     , ,  1947 .                1956 . .: Nuclear Development in the United Kingdom, World Nuclear Association, October 2016;  Boiling Water Reactor Technology: International Status and UK Experience, Position paper, National Nuclear Laboratory, 2013.].  ,      ,        .  ,   ,         ;          ,   .        .   ,          .   ,     .   ,     ,   ,  [166 - Frank N. Von Hippel and Matthew Bunn, Saga of the Siberian Plutonium-Production Reactors, Federation of American Scientists Public Interest Report, 53 (November/December 2000), https://fas.org/faspir/v53n6.htm (https://fas.org/faspir/v53n6.htm); Von Hippel and Goldston, author interview, 2018.].    : ,       (),    ()[167 - Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 2067.].

          ,     -1[168 - Josephson, Red Atom, 25; Schmid, Producing Power, 102.].    - ,         ,      .   ,     ,       - [169 - Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 347.].  ,       .     (   )     [170 - Josephson, Red Atom, 56.].

     -1       :               ,     [171 -  , 27.].  -1  ,   ,    . ,    1954  -1     ,     ,     : ,     ()  .

      -      ,           [172 - RBMK Reactors, World Nuclear Association, June 2016, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx (https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx).].     ,  ,           .  - ,      ,   ,           .      (    ),      .       ,  [173 -   (dead mans handle) ,   ,   ,        . . .],    - ,   [174 -     20   -  (),   13     2     .         - . . . .].

  - ,   -1,    .                  ,   .    ,   ,       . ,   ,     ,             .     ,     .    -  ,   ,   .    [175 -           ,       ,   - . . . .]     -1        - .



20 1956       .   ,  1942 ,         ,            .      XX          ,    [176 -        /  . . . . .:   , 2004. . 466471.].               ,     ,      .  ,         .  ,          2   400 ,     .

     ⠖     蠖        [177 -  . .        //    /  . . . 19. Schmid, Producing Power, 20.].      ,       .         ,      [178 - Schmid, Producing Power, 22  2627.].       堖   ,       ,    ,       .     ,      .       .

  ,       ,             ,      :    ,        (too cheap to meter)[179 -         1954   ,      ,        . Thomas Wellock,  Too Cheap to Meter: A History of the Phrase, United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission Blog, June 3, 2016.].                   .      :        ,         蠖   ,        .

               [180 - Schmid, Producing Power, 22.].  ,          ,   ,            .           .  ,    頖 蠖       . ,     ,      ,     ,           ,         .

   ,        :        (),  ,       ,    -   ࠖ   -1[181 -  , 21.    1956 ,   ,   . ,   1954 ,   (103  275125).]. ,      ,    ,    ,      [182 -  , . 29.].  ,      ,   ,   ,  .    ,   ,          .      ,   1960   ,     .

          ,    ,    816  -7[183 -  1954 ࠖ ,  1997 ࠖ  -  (). . .][184 -  , 106  266n41; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 348.]. -2,    ,    - [185 - Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 348  443n16.].  , -1,  ,  ,        .  -2    :   ,         100  () .               (       ).           [186 - Schmid, Producing Power, 34.].              ,    ,      .



     ,               ,     II          - [187 - The Atom Joins the Grid, London: British Path, October 1956, www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVBGk0R15gA (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVBGk0R15gA).].      ,  ,       , ,                  .  ,        ,       ,      ,   ,     .   !  .

   .    ,          . ,   ,    [188 -   Windscale 1957: Britains Biggest Nuclear Disaster (Sarah Aspinall, BBC, 2007)     :   ,       ,    . . : Lorna Arnold, Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), 21; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 181.].           ,    ,      .    -        : ,        ,  -   .

     ,   1957 ,    -                .    ,     ,     .         . 9   1    2000 [189 -    .: Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 163.].    ,               -131[190 - Rebecca Morelle, Windscale Fallout Underestimated, October 6, 2007, BBC News; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 161.].        ,  ,       ,         .   ,   ,   , -     ,    ,   [191 - Arnold, Windscale 1957, 7887.].            .         30 [192 - Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 181.         ,    ,        1988 .   . .: Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 15981.].

        .    -    ,  ,           ,   .               .     ,            , ,      ,      -        [193 - Josephson, Red Atom, 4, 14243, 147  248.   ,           .          -60  1963  (160).       ( )    .      .].           ,   ,         .

         ,            .     ,        ,  1960      .    [194 -  , 113117.].                  [195 -  , 117118  246249.].   ,         ,     蠖  ,   ,  .    ,  ,   ,    .         ,          .      ,         ,     .      ,          .           ,          ,            蠖     .

      ,         .             ,    ,         [196 -  . .   . .: , 1993.  .   ,  . . :  115-    //        . 26  2013  (www.veteranrosatom.ru/articles/articles_276.html (http://www.veteranrosatom.ru/articles/articles_276.html)).].            (頖    ,  ⠖   ),             [197 -  .     [ . ] //   . 2007. 4;  .        //   . 4 2014  (http://fakty.ua/176084-legendarnyj-prezident-sovetskoj-akademii-nauk-v-yunosti-byl-belogvardejcem (http://fakty.ua/176084-legendarnyj-prezident-sovetskoj-akademii-nauk-v-yunosti-byl-belogvardejcem)).].       -        .                , , , , ,    [198 - Schmid, Producing Power, 53;  :  // . http://www.biblioatom.ru/evolution/vvedeniye (http://www.biblioatom.ru/evolution/vvedeniye).].     蠖      ,    .

  ⠖         ⠖  ,         ,   [199 -  . 16: C    . : . . -    , 1998. C. 52; Schmid, Producing Power, 93.].   ,         ,   ,      [200 - Schmid, Producing Power, 50 and 234n55.].

     ,    ,  堖 ,  ,    ,  .        1960-     ,  [201 -         ,       ,      .   ,                :   ,     ,   .  .,  . :  ,   . : , 2011. . 123.          ,            .            . Zhores Medvedev, Legacy of Chernobyl, 26364; Schmid, Producing Power, 5052, 60, 235n58.].    ,    ,  1966                .   堖       ,        ࠖ      .

   12        (),   1957          ,    [202 - David Fischer, History of the Atomic Energy Agency: The First Forty Years (Vienna: IAEA, 1997), 40, 4243.].        ,         ,    .    30         ,    ࠖ    [203 -          ,   ,               (Medvedev, Legacy of Chernobyl, 26465).].

     .



 16:20  , 29  1957 ,      -40.                [204 - Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 232.].     (  ) 껠        ,      -40[205 -  ,  1994 ࠖ -65 (. ),  1966 ࠖ -40. . .],   ,     .    ,      .   ,  ,            .  .

    ,     ,     [206 - G.Sh. Batorshin and Y. G. Mokrov, Experience in Eliminating the Consequences of the 1957 Accident at the Mayak Production Association, International Experts Meeting on Decommissioning and Remediation After a Nuclear Accident, IAEA, Vienna, Austria, January 28 to February 1, 2013.].           .        160  20  ,       ,   .        .             ⠖    .            .

        -40  ,    ,    .      ,   ,      .          2 ,     6    50.               [207 - Brown, Plutopia, 239.].      [208 -  , . 232236.].          ,              .   -40,      ,   ,     .         ,   3000    ,      ,   ,    ,   .

          ,     ,  ,         [209 -  . .,  . . -   1957 :    // . 32. 8.  2017 . .13; Brown, Plutopia, 23944.].         .     10 000   .      , 23    ,        [210 -   ,    475 000 . (Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 284), ,     ,      45 000 . .:     .         . , 2002.   : http://docplayer.ru/31184594-Posledstviya-tehnogennogo-radiacionnogo-vozdeystviya-i-problemy-reabilitacii-uralskogo-regiona.html (http://docplayer.ru/31184594-Posledstviya-tehnogennogo-radiacionnogo-vozdeystviya-i-problemy-reabilitacii-uralskogo-regiona.html).].

  ,    ,  ,  -40       ,        ,     ,  ,   .        - -2.        1960  ,     ,     -2   ,        [211 - Oleg A. Bukharin, The Cold War Atomic Intelligence Game, 194570, Studies in Intelligence 48, no. 2 (2004): 4.].

    ,            .




3

, 25 , 17:00, 


    , 25  1986 ,      ,    ,    .     ,    [212 - ,   , 2016 .].        ,      ,     ,  -,    ,       .        .        ,    .

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,     ,  8:00          ,      ,  . ,    ,  ,       젖       .      ,   ,         ,          .



 -    ,        4-  ,         .       [214 -  ,   , 2006 .].    ,   ,           .  13     ,        .  16     ,         .

       ,   17           .   [215 -              1988   .  . . 25       [25 de ani ai Comitetului National Olimpic si Sportiv din Republica Moldova]. :  , 2016. . 16.].  1978         .   ,       [216 -  ,   , ,  2015 .].

,    24 ,       .    ,            ,      .                蠖    ,      ,      [217 -  ,   , 2015 .].

        ,     .  12      ,   .      .      ,   .       ,   .  - , ,        .    .  ,      ,    .

          ,     ,   .      ,   ,      .      1982 ,     ,  .         :   21 ,  20.    .

    1983 ,     ,          [218 -  ,   , 2006 .].   .        ,   ,   ,    .  , ,   ,  .  ,         ,      .

  ,      [219 -  ,   , 2015 .      , 27  2016 .].    ,      ,     .          1983 ,      . ,  ,         .               1970.        :          .   ,    ,    .          .    -   ,  ,     ,    .

   .  4  ,  2000 .      ,   .   ,      ,       .   1986   ,    -    4- .               .          4- .  ,   ,   ,     .   :      ,        .  ,      ,      .      .

  ,     ,    [220 - Read, Ablaze, 61;  ,   , 2015 .].     .     ,    .   , ,       ,    .        ,      .   25 ,   ,      ,      ,     .         ,        .          .  ,   ,       .        ,  ,     .

                 , [221 -  ,       , 2015 .]. ,       22:30, ,       [222 -  ,   , 2015 .].     .       ,    ,    .    ,   .    ,    .

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         ,   ,   [224 -  ,   , ,  2015 .].        ,  .    -      ,      -   .         ,      ,    ,  ,  -.             ,  .

,   ,  ,      ,    ,      .    ,    19501960-        . -      .       ,   1957        .               ,    ,   .

       ,        [225 -  ,   , ,  2015 .].     ,      , ,       ,     ,     . -  ,   ,       ,     ˸[226 -  .].    -1            12  1961 ,  ,     , ,       .

  ˸   13,       ,     [227 -  .].     ˸   ,   .         ,  ,    ,            [228 -   1942      ,              .  //     Ȼ. https://mephi.ru/about/index2.php (https://mephi.ru/about/index2.php).].        ,      ,       [229 -  ,   ,  ,  2016 .].  ˸    ,       .   ,    .    , ,       ,        . ˸   ,      ,           .

        .  17         .



      1977-      ,      .                     .    ,  , ,   ..,  - [230 -  ,   , ,  2015 .].       ,        -   ࠖ ,       ,       2000 .

          ,   ,      .          ,     ,    [231 - Kristin Roth-Ey, Moscow Prime Time: How the Soviet Union Built the Media Empire That Lost the Cultural Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 25859.].       [232 - ,   ,   , 2015 .].   ,   .               .

    堖         ,    [233 - ,   , 2015 .].      ,         .      ,        ,     [234 - ,   , 2015 .].   ,      ,     .           ,   [235 - ,   , 2015 .].        .    .      ,   .

       :       ,          [236 - ,   (2015 )    ( 2018 , ).].         ,    .    ,           1983         4- ,          .

    ,    ,      :    ,  蠖   ,   . ,      [237 - ,   , 2015 .].   :   ,     ,   堖 ,     .  ,              ,   ,           .            ,             ,    ,     .

   1983      4,     [238 -  ; ,   , 2015 .      Sich, The Chornobyl Accident Revisited, 83.].     ,     ,          , ,            .     ,       ,           ,     ,   . ,        ,  ,   ,    13  1983        .

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      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


  -ࠖ    . . .




2


  -ࠖ    . . .




3


       ,    26  1986 ,   , , .




4


 ,      427-       ,     1  2017  (: ,  2017 ); Yuli Khariton, Yuri Smirnov, Linda Rothstein, and Sergei Leskov, The Khariton Version, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 49, no. 4 (1993), p. 30.




5


,  2017 .




6


 .  []. 2005 (         , 2007);   ,  427-       ,   , , 9  2016 .




7


 . .




8


    ,  .




9


 . .




10


     (  1986 ࠖ        ),   , ,  2015    2016 .   , , 17  2006 .           ѻ [i i ],   - , 1974.       :   , . .  (, , 1989),  3,  40:05, www.youtube.com/watch?v=keEcEHQipAY (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keEcEHQipAY).




11


Zhores A. Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York: Norton, 1990), 239; Controversy Around the Third Phase of the Chernobyl NPP,  ,  27  1987 ,  : Aftermath of Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident, Part IV, Joint Publication Research Service, Soviet Union: Political Affairs (hereafter, JPRS, Soviet Union Political Affairs), 111.




12


Vitali Sklyarov, Chernobyl Was Tomorrow, trans. Victor Batachov (Montreal: Presses dAmrique, 1993), 22.




13


Alexander Sich, The Chornobyl Accident Revisited: Source Term Analysis and Reconstruction of Events During the Active Phase (PhD diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1994), 203.




14


Richard F. Mould, Chernobyl Record: The Definitive History of the Chernobyl Catastrophe (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000), 312.




15


 1979  1989      2,2  2,6 :  . .    . .: , 1990. . 15: http://istmat.info/files/uploads/17594/naselenie_sssr_po_dannym_vsesoyuznoy_perepisi_naseleniya_1989g.pdf (http://istmat.info/files/uploads/17594/naselenie_sssr_po_dannym_vsesoyuznoy_perepisi_naseleniya_1989g.pdf). . : Sich, The Chornobyl Accident Revisited, 196.




16


   ,   , 2015 ;      25  2016 .




17


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18


   ( 3-  6-   ),   ,  2016 .




19


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20


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21


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22


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23


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24


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25


 .    /  . .   .  7:                ѻ, 29  1970 .




26


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27


  (   ),   , , ,  2016 .   (  ,        1971    ),   , ,  2016 . 軠 ,    ,         .  1971     17,9 : Lewis Siegelbaum, Shock Workers; Seventeen Moments in Soviet History, http://soviethistory.msu.edu/19292/shock-workers/ (http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1929%E2%80%932/shock-workers/).




28


 ,   , , ,  2015 .




29


Schmid, Producing Power, 19.




30


  (   ),   , , ,  2015 .




31


 [  ] //   . 2000; ,   , 2015 .




32


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33


 .    /  . .   .  10:                         л, 29  1971 ; ,    , 6  2018 .




34


    ,            1972    236  300 ,   1989      . Yevgenia Albats, The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia Past, Present, and Future, trans. Catherine Fitzpatrick (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), 189.




35


 .    /  . .   .  13:             ѻ, 14  1972 .




36


Schmid, Producing Power, 19; George Stein, Pipes Called Puff Pastry Made of Steel, Los Angeles Times, May 16, 1986; Piers Paul Read, Ablaze: The Story of the Heroes and Victims of Chernobyl (New York: Random House, 1993), 30 and 4647.




37


.  : .   . .: , 1993. . 163165.




38


          ѻ.                 .      . . .




39


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40


          19721974 . .:  .    /  . .   .  13.




41


Robert Service, A History of Modern Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 4799.




42


Raymond E. Zickel, ed., Soviet Union: A Country Study (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1991), 281.




43


Theodore R. Weeks, Across the Revolutionary Divide: Russia and the USSR, 18611945 (Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 77.




44


            ,  : Merle Fainsod, Smolensk Under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958).




45


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46


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47


Read, Ablaze, 31.




48


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49


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50


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51


David Remnick, Lenins Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 249.




52


Sklyarov, Chernobyl Was Tomorrow, 119 and 122.  ,      ,    .




53


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54


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55


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56


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57


Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russias Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005), 55.




58


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59


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60


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61


,   .




62


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63


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64


 . ,  . : , 2013. . 14;   (   ),   , ,  2015 .




65


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66


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67


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68


Sklyarov, Chernobyl Was Tomorrow, 123.




69


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70


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71


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72


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73


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74


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75


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76


David R. Marples, Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR (New York: St. Martins Press, 1986), 120.




77


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78


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79


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80


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81


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82


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83


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84


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85


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86


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87


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88


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89


 , 90.




90


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91


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92


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93


Read, Ablaze, 45.




94


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95


,   , 2017 ; Schmid, Producing Power, 153.  ,     , .: Marples, Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR, 120.




96


Grigori Medvedev, The Truth About Chernobyl, 44.




97


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98


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99


 .   // .   .   ? / . . . . . 98.




100


,   , 2015 .




101


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102


,      ,   , 2015 ;  .       [  ] // . 26  2010  (www.odnako.org/magazine/material/chernobil-nikogo-i-nichemu-ne-nauchil1/ (http://www.odnako.org/magazine/material/chernobil-nikogo-i-nichemu-ne-nauchil1/)).




103


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104


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105


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106


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107


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108


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109


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110


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111


Gale and Hauser, Final Warning, 6.




112


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113


Craig Nelson, The Age of Radiance: The Epic Rise and Dramatic Fall of the Atomic Era (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014), 34.




114


Gale and Lax, Radiation, 13 and 1718.




115


 , 20.




116


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117


Gale and Hauser, Final Warning, 1819.




118


Mettlerand Kelsey, Fundamentals of Radiation Accidents, 79; -  ,   , , 14  2016 .




119


Galeand Lax, Radiation, 39.




120


Timothy Jorgensen, Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 2328.




121


 , 3132; US Department of the Interior, The Historic Furnishings Report of the National Park Service, Edison Laboratory, 1995, 73, online at www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/edis/edis_lab_hfr.pdf (http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/edis/edis_lab_hfr.pdf).   . : Gilbert King, Clarence Dally: The Man Who Gave Thomas Edison X-Ray Vision, Smithsonian.com, March 14, 2012.




122


Jorgensen, Strange Glow, 9395.




123


Gale and Lax, Radiation, 4345.




124


Jorgensen, Strange Glow, 8889.




125


Gale and Lax, Radiation, 44.




126


Timothy Jorgensen, associate professor in the Department of Radiation Medicine at Georgetown University,     , 19  2016 .




127


National Research Council, Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2 (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006), 141.




128


  Masao Tomonaga (head of the Atomic Bomb Disease Institute at Nagasaki University), . : Gale and Lax, Radiation, 5257.




129


James Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York: Pegasus, 2009), 28689 and 32933. . : Dwayne Keith Petty, Inside Dawson Forest: A History of the Georgia Nuclear Aircraft Laboratory, Pickens County Progress, January 2, 2007, online at http://archive.li/GMnGk (http://archive.li/GMnGk).




130


 ,  ,  ,  5100  (510 ). Jorgensen, Strange Glow, 111; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York: Pegasus Books, 2014), 5760.




131


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132


Atomic Bomb Worker Died From Burns,  New York Times, September 21, 1945. . : Paul Baumann, NL Man Was 1st Victim of Atomic Experiments, The Day, August 6, 1985.




133


David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 19391956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 213.    ,         -  1945 ,   the Gadget ().




134


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135


       ,    ,             (Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 183; Schmid, Producing Power, 45).




136


Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 203. The full title of the book was Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb Under the Auspices of the United States Government, 19401945.       50 000      (Josephson, Red Atom, 24).




137


      ()          (   ).          20  1945        . . .




138


         ӻ. Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores A. Medvedev, The Unknown Stalin, translated by Ellen Dahrendorf (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 133; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York: Knopf, 2004), 5012.




139


Medvedev and Medvedev, Unknown Stalin, 134 and 162.




140


Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 21819.




141


 , 347.




142


Josephson, Red Atom, 2026.




143


Galeand Lax, Radiation, 48.




144


Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 307 and 317.




145


Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010), 10611.




146


Josephson, Red Atom, 173.




147


Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 113.




148


Schmid, Producing Power, 97.




149


Montefiore, Stalin, 652.




150


Schmid, Producing Power, 45 and 230n29.




151


  ,     -     (Lost Horizn)      (1937). . .




152


Josephson, Red Atom, 11.




153


 , 45.




154


Paul Josephson, Rockets, Reactors, and Soviet Culture, in Loren Graham, ed., Science and the Soviet Social Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 174.




155


Josephson, Red Atom, 11




156


 , 25. Schmid, Producing Power, 45.




157


 , 46.




158


Josephson, Red Atom, 2627.




159


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160


Ray L. Lyerly and Walter Mitchell III, Nuclear Power Plants, rev. ed. (Washington, DC: Atomic Energy Commission, 1973), 3; Bertrand Barr, Fundamentals of Nuclear Fission, in Gerard M. Crawley, ed., Energy from the Nucleus: The Science and Engineering of Fission and Fusion (Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishing, 2016), 3.




161


 (shake)   ,     10   10


 . . .




162


Chuck Hansen, U. S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History (Arlington, TX: Aerofax, 1988), 11.




163


World Nuclear Association, Physics of Uranium and Nuclear Energy, updated February 2018, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy.aspx; Robert Goldston and Frank Von Hippel,   , 2018 .




164


Goldston and Von Hippel,   , 2018 .




165


      GLEEP (Graphite Low Energy Experimental Pile),     , ,  1947 .                1956 . .: Nuclear Development in the United Kingdom, World Nuclear Association, October 2016;  Boiling Water Reactor Technology: International Status and UK Experience, Position paper, National Nuclear Laboratory, 2013.




166


Frank N. Von Hippel and Matthew Bunn, Saga of the Siberian Plutonium-Production Reactors, Federation of American Scientists Public Interest Report, 53 (November/December 2000), https://fas.org/faspir/v53n6.htm (https://fas.org/faspir/v53n6.htm); Von Hippel and Goldston, author interview, 2018.




167


Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 2067.




168


Josephson, Red Atom, 25; Schmid, Producing Power, 102.




169


Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 347.




170


Josephson, Red Atom, 56.




171


 , 27.




172


RBMK Reactors, World Nuclear Association, June 2016, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx (https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx).




173


  (dead mans handle) ,   ,   ,        . . .




174


    20   -  (),   13     2     .         - . . . .




175


          ,       ,   - . . . .




176


       /  . . . . .:   , 2004. . 466471.




177


 . .        //    /  . . . 19. Schmid, Producing Power, 20.




178


Schmid, Producing Power, 22  2627.




179


        1954   ,      ,        . Thomas Wellock,  Too Cheap to Meter: A History of the Phrase, United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission Blog, June 3, 2016.




180


Schmid, Producing Power, 22.




181


 , 21.    1956 ,   ,   . ,   1954 ,   (103  275125).




182


 , . 29.




183


 1954 ࠖ ,  1997 ࠖ  -  (). . .




184


 , 106  266n41; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 348.




185


Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 348  443n16.




186


Schmid, Producing Power, 34.




187


The Atom Joins the Grid, London: British Path, October 1956, www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVBGk0R15gA (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DVBGk0R15gA).




188


  Windscale 1957: Britains Biggest Nuclear Disaster (Sarah Aspinall, BBC, 2007)     :   ,       ,    . . : Lorna Arnold, Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), 21; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 181.




189


   .: Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 163.




190


Rebecca Morelle, Windscale Fallout Underestimated, October 6, 2007, BBC News; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 161.




191


Arnold, Windscale 1957, 7887.




192


Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 181.         ,    ,        1988 .   . .: Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 15981.




193


Josephson, Red Atom, 4, 14243, 147  248.   ,           .          -60  1963  (160).       ( )    .      .




194


 , 113117.




195


 , 117118  246249.




196


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197


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198


Schmid, Producing Power, 53;  :  // . http://www.biblioatom.ru/evolution/vvedeniye (http://www.biblioatom.ru/evolution/vvedeniye).




199


 . 16: C    . : . . -    , 1998. C. 52; Schmid, Producing Power, 93.




200


Schmid, Producing Power, 50 and 234n55.




201


        ,       ,      .   ,                :   ,     ,   .  .,  . :  ,   . : , 2011. . 123.          ,            .            . Zhores Medvedev, Legacy of Chernobyl, 26364; Schmid, Producing Power, 5052, 60, 235n58.




202


David Fischer, History of the Atomic Energy Agency: The First Forty Years (Vienna: IAEA, 1997), 40, 4243.




203


         ,   ,               (Medvedev, Legacy of Chernobyl, 26465).




204


Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 232.




205


 ,  1994 ࠖ -65 (. ),  1966 ࠖ -40. . .




206


G.Sh. Batorshin and Y. G. Mokrov, Experience in Eliminating the Consequences of the 1957 Accident at the Mayak Production Association, International Experts Meeting on Decommissioning and Remediation After a Nuclear Accident, IAEA, Vienna, Austria, January 28 to February 1, 2013.




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Brown, Plutopia, 239.




208


 , . 232236.




209


 . .,  . . -   1957 :    // . 32. 8.  2017 . .13; Brown, Plutopia, 23944.




210


  ,    475 000 . (Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 284), ,     ,      45 000 . .:     .         . , 2002.   : http://docplayer.ru/31184594-Posledstviya-tehnogennogo-radiacionnogo-vozdeystviya-i-problemy-reabilitacii-uralskogo-regiona.html (http://docplayer.ru/31184594-Posledstviya-tehnogennogo-radiacionnogo-vozdeystviya-i-problemy-reabilitacii-uralskogo-regiona.html).




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Oleg A. Bukharin, The Cold War Atomic Intelligence Game, 194570, Studies in Intelligence 48, no. 2 (2004): 4.




212


,   , 2016 .




213


 ,   , ,  2015 .         :  IX,     , 25  2011 , https://pripyat-city.ru/photo/91-pripyat-do-avarii-chast-ix.html (https://pripyat-city.ru/photo/91-pripyat-do-avarii-chast-ix.html).




214


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215


             1988   .  . . 25       [25 de ani ai Comitetului National Olimpic si Sportiv din Republica Moldova]. :  , 2016. . 16.




216


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217


 ,   , 2015 .




218


 ,   , 2006 .




219


 ,   , 2015 .      , 27  2016 .




220


Read, Ablaze, 61;  ,   , 2015 .




221


 ,       , 2015 .




222


 ,   , 2015 .




223


Read, Ablaze, 61.




224


 ,   , ,  2015 .




225


 ,   , ,  2015 .




226


 .




227


 .




228


  1942      ,              .  //     Ȼ. https://mephi.ru/about/index2.php (https://mephi.ru/about/index2.php).




229


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230


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231


Kristin Roth-Ey, Moscow Prime Time: How the Soviet Union Built the Media Empire That Lost the Cultural Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 25859.




232


,   ,   , 2015 .




233


,   , 2015 .




234


,   , 2015 .




235


,   , 2015 .




236


,   (2015 )    ( 2018 , ).




237


,   , 2015 .




238


 ; ,   , 2015 .      Sich, The Chornobyl Accident Revisited, 83.




239


, ,   , 2015 ;  .  蠖 .  //  (    ). 17  1986 .    .




240


,   , 2015 ; Josephson, Red Atom, 67. ,  ,         ,   ,     ,    ,       (Zhores Medvedev, Legacy of Chernobyl, 92).          24 ,  1978        .   ,        -90,       .    ,   .   /  . . .  6                           , 12  1981 .


