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  PDF A4   .





 

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John Kelly

THE GREAT MORTALITY: AN INTIMATE HISTORY OF THE BLACK DEATH



Published by arrangement with HarperCollins Publishers

Copyright  2005 by John Kelly



  ..,    , 2021

    .   , 2021







        ,      .

  ,         ,                 .      ,    ,    ,  .           :   ,   [1 -  : Three on the Edge: The Story of Ordinary Families in Search of a Medical Miracle,    . (. .)]       ,      .        .         .     1990- ,        .         ,        .         ,       .       ,       .

 1995 ,         ,  ,     ,   ,        .         ,   .   ,  1997 ,        , New England Journal of Medicine   .          ,          ,   .         1979   ,              , ,  ,  ,    , ,      ,      . ,    ,      ,  , ,    ,    ,  ,   ,     .

,     ,   ,        .               .    ,     ,     ,      ,       .

   ,      :     -        .      ,                          .  ,         ,        ,      ,       60  .      .            ,  ,     7-  :     ,   .    , , ,    ,  軠   ,        .            ,          .

        ,     ?   ,         .          ,      ,   ,      ,       . ,   2000         -         .      ,        ,   ,  ,        ,   .         .       ,  ,      ,        ,     ,  .

   .  1340- ,    ,      ,  ,     .         ,    ,   ,     ,         .  ,     ,         ,      , :   .  ,    13481349 ,    ,      .      ,      ,  ,        ,  ,   ; ,    -  ,   ,                  .   ,     , -,  ,   , ,   ,    .              ,      ,       .

        .                .                 ,  ,      .           .     ,       ,       ,    ,       ?  .          ,             : ,         .           ,     .            ,    ,    . -   1340-         .              .

            1345               ,           .  ,      -     ,    1347    .            .     ,       ,  ,   .           .   1348  ?       ,     ,  ,   ,       ,  .      ,      .    ,       ,       .      ,   ,            ,   ,       ,   .    1348          ,   1349  1350        : , ,   .   ,       ,          .

  ,       .   1349 ,      ,    III ,            .   ,  ,          ,  .     ,       .              .           .   ,         .

  -   .           .   ,   [2 -    ,   XIII . (. .)],      ,       ,        -  ,    ,    .      VI,    ,   ,      ,        , ,   ,        .         ,   , ,   ,     .             , , ,     ,  ,         . ,          , ,     .                 .

      ,    ,   .        ,     ,     .         ,        .      , ,  ,        ,     .      ,   (  ),    , ,   ( )  ,      .

 ,  ,           ,        .                    .

           .         ,             ,   ,    . ,                ,      ,         ,       , ,  ,  ,   .

       , ,    ,   . ,                ,    ,      . , ,  ,     .                 ,            ,   . ,          ,     .       ,        ,        .

 2001        ,     -    ,    ,     , -    ,  .  ,    - ,         ,          ,          ,  . ,     .




 I

Oimmeddam[3 -      . (. .)]


      ,    .  ,    ,   .    ,   .    ,    ,         ,          .  1266 ,        ,              :            ,        .          -  ,            .          ,           merdacaxi[4 -    ,    . (. .)]   ,   ,   ,           .     1340 ,             ,       ,   [5 -  ,  . , Histoire du commerce du Levant au moyen age, vol. 2 (: . , 1936), . 172174.].

,   ,      ,          .     ,     -.   , ,   ,         .             ,           ()  .          .     -         ,        [6 - . . . , The Medieval Expansion of Europe, 2- . (: Clarendon Press, 1998), . 238.]. ,   ,      ,   [7 - . :  , Medieval People (-: Harper & Row, 1963), . 42. .  :  . .: , 2010.],   ,   ,    ,         .        .        ,  ,    ,         ,         , ,    .

      :

		   ,
		   ,
		      
		   [8 -  . , Genoa and the Genoese, 9581528 (-: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), . 166.].

         :   .    1250  1350       ,  ,  ,   -    ,   ,          .    ,    ,            ,   ,     ,     .            - [9 - , The Medieval Expansion of Europe, . 100.].      ,     ,      [10 -         ,     ,   . (. .)],             .     ,               .             ,                 .             ,      .    :      ,     ,        ,          .         ,  ,       ,   [11 - , Histoire du commerce du Levant, . 170174. . : .   . , Notai genovesi  Oltremare Atti rogati a Caffa e a Licostomo (: 1973), . 14; . . , Storie delle Colonie Genovese nel Mediterraneo (: 1930).]. ,     1340       ,     ,     ,  ,     ,    ,   ,       . ,       ,       .       .

            :          ,      ,    ,    .  1340       ,   ,     ,       ,            .  1330-         . ,       ,      ,          .   ,               . ,      ,   ,   -- ,      (   ),    .  ,  ,        .   -       [12 - . . . , The Epidemics of The Middle Ages, . . .  (: Tr?bner, 1859), . 1215.].        ,    ,     [13 -   . , History of the Mongols, from the 9th to the 19th Century, . 2 (: 1888), . 87.].

         .   ,   , ,     , ,    ,     [14 -   ,    Ē, Defense Reactions During the Black Death, Annals of Medical History, . 9 (1927), . 169.].     ,   ,         .            ,  ,  .       , , ,      .         ,      .          ,      ,         ,         [15 -  , Breve Chronicon Cleric Anonymi,    The Black Death: Mancthester Medieval Sources, . .   (:   , 1994), . 4142.].



 ,       ,     , ,     ,   1330-   1340-          ,       ,         .    ,          ,          .          ,       ,     .  ,  ,   ,  ,  ,      .    ,    ,          , ,    ,        : ,   ,        [16 - , The Medieval Expansion of Europe, . 102.].            ,        [17 -  , Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970), . 249.], ,  ,    .  1343                ,     ,        . ,        [18 -    ,  . .   . . , Medieval Trade in The Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents Translated with Introductions and Notes (-:   , 1955), . 355358.],   La Practica della Mercatura,  XIV ,          .

    [19 -     ,        .        ,     ,   ,   .     ,  ,        / ,    . (. .,    .)],               .     ,    ,  .     ,          .        .            ,   ,         .      , ,     . . ,    ,    [20 - .. , The Goths in the Crimea (, :   , 1936), . 48.].        .            ,   ,   ,   .       :      ,         .

  ,          . ,    ,       ,    ,     , ,   ,   [21 -   , Historia de Morbo, , The Black Death, . 17.].     ,    ,   . ,  1343 ,         ,      .



 ,        , ,         [22 - , Breve Chronicon Cleric Anonymi,  , The Black Death, . 42.].        .         :  1346           .    ,        .  ,        ,        .                -,  ,               ,    .

-, ,    ,     , ,           ,    [23 -  . , The Black Death in the Middle East (: Princeton University Press, 1977), . 40.].          . ,       1330- ,       ,           .        ,   ,   1332       -        [24 -  , . 41.].  1331 ,      ,        .        -          [25 -  . , Plagues and Peoples (-: Anchor Books, 1976), . 173.].

   ,  ,     ,  -   ,         ,      ,   ,  .              ,     ,       .  ,    -,  ,   .   ,  ,      ,         [ ],                         .    ,  , ,    [26 - , The Black Death in the Middle East, . 41.].

       -,            [27 - - , Les hommes et la peste en France et dans les pays europens et mditerranens, vol. 1 (: Mouton & Co., 1975), . 4955.].   -  ,      ,  ,   ,       . (   ,     .)  , -           ,     .         . .  ,           1338  1339 ,          .       :

		  [1339]
		  .
		        -[28 - . , Nestorian Missionary Enterprise: The Story of a Church on Fire (: T. & T. Clark, 1928), . 198.][29 -     ,       . ,      .    ,                -.     ,  ,    ,    ,        .        - ,   ,        .].

 -            .      ,   ,  , ,          [30 -  . , The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (-: Free Press, 1983), . 36.].           -,        ,     -,   ,   ,  ,    , ,         .          ,    ,         ,  -    ,                 .       1346 .           ,              ,      ,        [31 -  . , The Black Death, 13461353: The Complete History (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2004), . 50.].  ,      ,             ,           .

,  ,      ,     .     -,      ,     . ,        ,            .     ,  ,               ,       .     , ,     ,               [32 -  , Historia de Morbo,  , The Black Death, . 17.].

    ,           ,   ,         ,      .        ,     ,     ,         ?    ,   , ,     ,         :       ,        ,            ,         .    ,   ,      ,           [33 -           ,     .  ,         284  20 %     ,      ,    Y. pestis.   ,  , ,    ,      - ,      .   , ,     ,     .    ,    ,    ,       .        ,               ,     ,            . (Mark Wheelis, Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, No. 9 [2002], 971975).].        ,   ,               [34 - , . 52.],  .

   ,           .     1347 ,      ,     ,     ,              .           ,        1945     1975 .    ,  ,      .       ,    ,    ,     , ,     ,   ,        .    ,    ,      ;  ,  ,    ,           .   ,      ,   :        , ,  -    , ,   ,      .             ,           ,  ,   ,        ,       .

       ,         ,   ,   ,    ,   ,    ,     .         ,  ,     [ ]  , , , ,     .       ,   [35 -    , The Black Death (-: Harper & Row, 1969), . 16.].

     ,     -   oimmeddam,  .    ,     oimmeddam    .



 ?       .

  ,  ,   .

    ?  .

  ,  .       ,      .   .      ,     ,   ,   .      ,       .     ,     [36 -  . , Disease, Human Migration and History  The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (:   , 1993), . 35.].



     oimmeddam   .         200  [37 -  . , The Genus Yersinia, Current Topics in Microbiology, . 57 (1972), . 111.],           ,   ,   .   ,     ,      ,         .      . ,   ,       ,     [38 -  , Assessing the Magnitude of Disaster, Professional Geographer, . 28 (1976), . 241247.].                 [39 -   , The Ten Most Significant Events of The Second Millennium,  The World Almanac and Book of Facts (, -: Primedia, 1999), . 35.].     ,    ,           ,             .      Disaster and Recovery,        ,                  ,     [40 -  , Disaster and Recovery: The Black Death in Western Europe,           (-: RAND Corporation, 1966), . 12.].

    .            , Yersinia pestis,       ,    .        ,             ,         : , ,   .       , .        33 [41 - , The Black Death, . 230. . :  , History of The Black Death in Ireland (, : , 2001), . 41; The Black Death in The Middle Ages, The Dictionary of the Middle Ages, .  .  (-:  , 1982), . 244; , The Black Death, . 3;     , The Black Death and History of Plagues, 13451730, 13451730 (, : , 2000), . 3435.][42 -            ,   .    ,      60   .     33         . ,      ,    .   ,   ,      24 ,            ,     75 . (William Naphy and Andrew Spicer, The Black Death: A History of Plagues [Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing, 2000], p. 34. .  Ole J. Benedictow, The Black Death: The Complete History [Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2004], p. 383.)].     ,   1347 ,     ,  1352 ,       ,         .      ,             40  60 .           ,    ? ,  , , ,      ,     ,        ,       .

    . ,             ,       ,                   ,     [43 -       . (. .)]       .     ?    .    ?    ?    ?   ,     [44 -  , Letter from Parma, , The Black Death, . 248249.].

              [45 - , The Black Death, . 35.].     ,      [46 -  , , The Black Death in The Middle East, . 67.].   -          ,   1200  1393      50 ,   123  65 .          1,9  [47 - , The Black Death, . 174.].

         ,      ,      .     .     ,          Yersinia pestis     [48 -    , ,     .   ,       ,  -         . (Dean E. Biggins and Michael Kosvol, Influences of Introduced Plague on North American Mammals, Journal of Mammalogy [November 2001], . 906916.)].    Y. pestis  , , , , ,         .             ,      [49 -   , The Black Death and History of Plagues, . 35.].      ,       ,   1250  ,  , ,              .

       .           ,  ,                   .  (,   , ,   )      ,   -        .           , ,   ,      ,           ,     .

,          .    , Y. pestis       .    ,    ()    ,    ,       ,   ,   ,  ,              .             ,         [50 - . . . , Marking in Marker Dates: Towards an Archeology with Historical Precision, World Archeology, . 23,  2 ( 1991), . 23.],     .

,              .          ( ),  (   ),   (   ),   ( )         ( )[51 - . . . , Putting Abrupt Environmental Change Back into Human History,  Environments and Historical Change,  .   (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), . 5272. . :  . . , Britain 1300, History Today,  2000.]. ,            ,       . ,   ,       ,       ,         .

       ,                    , -      .    ,      ,         .   ,          ,    Y. pestis,              .

          .    ,            .               ,    .    .        Rattus rattus      ,    ,   ,     .        ,      : ,   ,    ,  ,   . ,      ,    ,           .           ,   [52 -  ,  (:   , 1954); .  , The Conquest of Plague: A Study of The Evolution of Epidemiology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953);  -  ., Plague: A Manual for Medical and Public Health Workers (:    ,  , 1936);  -, A Treatise of Pneumonic Plague (: 1926);    ,      , Journal of Hygiene, . 8 (1900), . 266301;    , Statistical Investigation of Plague in The Punjab, Third Report on Some Factors Which Influence The Prevalence of Plague, Journal of Hygiene, . 11 (1911), 62156.].

        , , ,     .  ,  ,        ,   ,         .               ,         ,    ,         ,   .   ,         ,          [53 -     The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, .  . - (, :   , 1997), . 34.].


* * *

    [54 -             ,     . (Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control [Geneva: World Health Organization, 1999], pp. 2324.)]  ,   ,    .       ,   ,   ,     .      ,      .   ,      ,   ,     .

    ,          ,       . ,            ,   .            ,   ,               , -   ,          .    ,         , -, ,     .

 ,  -   ,   (  ,   ,  )   ,    ,      ,    , ,    :                 ,  ,   ,      .          ,                        .        .                .                ,  .    -   Y. pestis       ,      ,      -.


* * *

, ,    ,     Y. pestis.   ,      :  75        400 .     ,  ,    .   1000  1250          ,    1250      ,       ,     [55 - ,  The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, . 34.].        ,     ,       ,         .             .  1315  1322      ,    ,       ,      10  15  [56 -   , The Great Famine: Northern Europe in The Fourteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), . 118, 147.].               .

         ,  . ,         , ,   . ,      .     ,     ,      .     ,      ,     -  .           condottieri ()     .        , , ,   ,   ,                .

   ,     ,   , , ,   ,        ,     .          ,             .          merde,  ,  :  ,  ,  ,      ,     .        ,    .   Champs-Dolet,         ,  lEchorcheire:  [57 - - , La rue au Moyen age (: ditions Ouest-France, 1984).].           lEchorcheire:   ,      ,              .      ,           ,      ,         ,          .          ,       !,        .

 ,   90  ,     ,   .         ,             .             ,   ,  ,         .

        ,    .  III   ,       .  ,    ,         .     ,  -  : ,   [58 -  , , . . . - (: Penguin Books, 1972), . 308. .  . . .  (.: , 2016).].    , ,       ,     ,     [59 -  , Coprophilia, Or a Peck of Dirt (: , 1971), . 19.].

 ,               . ,  ,     ,       .   ,     ,      ,  , ,    -      .             [60 - The Report of The Paris Medical Faculty, October 1348,  ,  , . 158.],    ,      .  ,    ,         [61 - Tractatus de pestilenta,  Archive f?r Geschichte der Medizin, .   (: 1912), . 84].

            .    ,  ,   ,   ,      .  ,       ,              .        ,        ,   ,    ,   .      ,    ,     ,  .        ,    ,      .  ,     ,      ,    [62 -  , Chronicon Henrici Knighton,  , The Black Death, . 130.]  .



          .             ,  Y. pestis,    ,     ,     ,    .      , ,       ,  ,   .    ,    ,     Y. pestis  .          ,     ,   ,    .              Xenopsylla cheopis.

          . ,           ,      .          ,           .   ,        ,   : ,   -         .              ,         ,             .       X. cheopis,  ,    ,    , ,        .

      X. cheopis.      , ,      ,        Homo sapiens.    ,      . X. cheopis          ,         [63 -  , The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal (: Batsford Academic and Educational, 1984), . 21.].     . ,                 .      X. cheopis         .

    ,    ,    ,  .         ,  ,       [64 -  . , Yersinia Pestis,  Molecular Medical Microbiology, . .  (: Academic Press, 2001), . 20332058.].   ,       ,   X. cheopis       .  ,        ,      .        ,    ,    .

   ,          2530   ,       ?    .           ,    [65 -               ,    ,     . (. .)],      ,      ,       ,      ,   .    -         .



     .  ,   ,             [66 -     . , Yersinia Pestis  Etiologic Agent of Plague, Clinical Microbiology Review 10, . 1 ( 1997), . 58.].   ,  ,  [67 - , The Black Death, 13461353: The Complete History, . 26.],               .       ,     .    ,   ,       .  ,       gavocciolo,     .            ,              .    , gavocciolo     . , ,          ,      ,        .      .         .

 ,            .     petechiae.  - ,    ,   ,      ,     ,   .  ,           [68 -            , ,        .],    :

		  ,
		   .
		    
		  [69 -    , ,   . (. .)].

            .      ,     ,    ,    ,    .   ,  ,   :   , , , []  [] .        ,          .    ,    ,   ,      ,        .

  ,          .   ,              ,      ,   , ,   ,    -     ,    ,     .    ,               .                ,    ,       . ,      ,   ,   , ,    ,       .  ,      ,    ,          [70 -      ,     , CDC.].



     ,             . ,     ,         .            ,    .             ,       : .              .       ,     ,             .

      ,            .      .     ,          ,           .     .        ,       .     ,  , , ,                ,       ,       ,    .

        ,  ,          ,     ,    . ,     ,    ,     ,  ,           ,      ,      ,  ,        ,    ,   ,    ,      [71 - , . 28.].

     .    ,       95  100 .

     ,       .              ,   ,     Y. pestis, , ,    .                   14,5 [72 -  , . 26.].

 ,      -  ,                ,  .       ,               .  1631       , ,    ,       (Arta mors)       .  ,            . ,      1555  (swarta d?den), ,        (den sorte D?d),    ,         , ,    [73 -  , Facing The Black Death: Perceptions and Reactions of University Medical Practitioners,  Practical Medicine from Salerno to The Black Death,  .  -,  ,      (:   , 1994), . 242243.]. ,   ,   moria granisissima, la mortalega grande, tr?s grande mortalit, grosze Pestilentz, peligro grande  huge mortalyte: ,      , ,   ,  [74 -  . -, Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe (: , 2002), . 104.].

        ,                 ,        .                  ,   ,       Y. pestis        .       .   ,   [75 -         . ,          : , ,   . .], CCR5-?32,     [76 - . ,   ., Dating The Origin of The CCR5-?32 AIDS-Resistance Allele by The Coalescence of Haplotypes, American Journal of Human Genetics 62 (1998): 15071515. . : , Black Death Transformed, . 250.]. ,         .

    ,     ,   .

            .      ,        .     .           ,         ,       .        ,   .      ,          .

   ,      .       ,       ,    . , ,  ,          .    ,       ,    .       ,         [77 -   . (. .)], ,   ,  .

           .    ,    ,      ,  ,   ,   . ,  ,  ,          .           ,      . -        . ,     ,        .     -   , , ,         ,  .



      1347 ,  ,   ,   ,   -       ,    ,   13511352 ,          , Y. pestis      .

 ,        ,       ,      ,      13471348 , ,   .     ,   1348            ,               .   ,          ,      .     ,        ,      ,       ,   ,  20  1345 [78 - The Report of The Paris Medical Faculty, October 1348,  , The Black Death, . 158.].      ,   .      ,      ,         ,     .  ,         ,        ,     . ,      -,                      1940 .

  Y. pestis          .       ,           ,       .              ,      ,        .   ,        ,    [79 - Letter of Edward III to Alfonso, King of Castile, , The Black Death, . 250.],   III      ,   .  1349 ,        ,   :     ,   [80 - . , The Black Death in England and Wales, Proceedings of The Royal Society of Medicine . 16 ( 2 [1920]), . 134.].     Y. pestis   ,       , , ,       .   ,  ,      ,  ,    :     [81 - Annalium Hibernae Chronicon, . .  (:   , 1849 .), . 37.].



        ,     1347      .         ,         .     ,     ,    .         ,         ,      ,      ,   -   .     ,       [82 -    , Cronica friorentino, .  , RIS, XXX/1 (Citt? di Castello: 1903).],    .  ,     ,           :   [83 -     , Cronaca sense attribuita ad Agnolo di Tura del Grasso,  Cronache senesi, ed. .   . , RIS, XV/6 (: 19311937), . 555.].      . ,   ,          [84 - Ordinances of Pistoia 1348, . , The Black Death, . 195203.].     ,    ,      ,   ,   .       ,         ,    ,       .

       1348 , Y. pestis ,     , ,    , ,    ,      ,    -  [85 -  ,  , The Black Death, . 84.].    ,     .   1348   ,     ,     -             ,        .

  1349     -       ,       ,  ,             .                .   ,            ,     .       .      ,       ,       .               .

      ,         : ,  ,           .       ,  . ,  ,       ,  ,  ,  , :  ![86 -  , Historia Anglicana 12721422, . H. T. ,  2 ., Rolls Series, 18631864,  1, . 275]

  1349   ,  ,    , .           .             ,    II, ,      ,         ,      .     , Y. pestis     ,      ,    .  ,   .   ,            []    [87 - , . 13.].

     Y. pestis




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/dzhon-kelli/chernaya-smert-istoriya-samoy-razrushitelnoy-chumy-srednevekov/)  .

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notes








1


 : Three on the Edge: The Story of Ordinary Families in Search of a Medical Miracle,    . (. .)




2


   ,   XIII . (. .)




3


     . (. .)




4


   ,    . (. .)




5


 ,  . , Histoire du commerce du Levant au moyen age, vol. 2 (: . , 1936), . 172174.




6


. . . , The Medieval Expansion of Europe, 2- . (: Clarendon Press, 1998), . 238.




7


. :  , Medieval People (-: Harper & Row, 1963), . 42. .  :  . .: , 2010.




8


 . , Genoa and the Genoese, 9581528 (-: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), . 166.




9


, The Medieval Expansion of Europe, . 100.




10


        ,     ,   . (. .)




11


, Histoire du commerce du Levant, . 170174. . : .   . , Notai genovesi  Oltremare Atti rogati a Caffa e a Licostomo (: 1973), . 14; . . , Storie delle Colonie Genovese nel Mediterraneo (: 1930).




12


. . . , The Epidemics of The Middle Ages, . . .  (: Tr?bner, 1859), . 1215.




13


  . , History of the Mongols, from the 9th to the 19th Century, . 2 (: 1888), . 87.




14


  ,    Ē, Defense Reactions During the Black Death, Annals of Medical History, . 9 (1927), . 169.




15


 , Breve Chronicon Cleric Anonymi,    The Black Death: Mancthester Medieval Sources, . .   (:   , 1994), . 4142.




16


, The Medieval Expansion of Europe, . 102.




17


 , Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970), . 249.




18


   ,  . .   . . , Medieval Trade in The Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents Translated with Introductions and Notes (-:   , 1955), . 355358.




19


    ,        .        ,     ,   ,   .     ,  ,        / ,    . (. .,    .)




20


.. , The Goths in the Crimea (, :   , 1936), . 48.




21


  , Historia de Morbo, , The Black Death, . 17.




22


, Breve Chronicon Cleric Anonymi,  , The Black Death, . 42.




23


 . , The Black Death in the Middle East (: Princeton University Press, 1977), . 40.




24


 , . 41.




25


 . , Plagues and Peoples (-: Anchor Books, 1976), . 173.




26


, The Black Death in the Middle East, . 41.




27


- , Les hommes et la peste en France et dans les pays europens et mditerranens, vol. 1 (: Mouton & Co., 1975), . 4955.




28


. , Nestorian Missionary Enterprise: The Story of a Church on Fire (: T. & T. Clark, 1928), . 198.




29


    ,       . ,      .    ,                -.     ,  ,    ,    ,        .        - ,   ,        .




30


 . , The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (-: Free Press, 1983), . 36.




31


 . , The Black Death, 13461353: The Complete History (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2004), . 50.




32


 , Historia de Morbo,  , The Black Death, . 17.




33


          ,     .  ,         284  20 %     ,      ,    Y. pestis.   ,  , ,    ,      - ,      .   , ,     ,     .    ,    ,    ,       .        ,               ,     ,            . (Mark Wheelis, Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, No. 9 [2002], 971975).




34


, . 52.




35


   , The Black Death (-: Harper & Row, 1969), . 16.




36


 . , Disease, Human Migration and History  The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (:   , 1993), . 35.




37


 . , The Genus Yersinia, Current Topics in Microbiology, . 57 (1972), . 111.




38


 , Assessing the Magnitude of Disaster, Professional Geographer, . 28 (1976), . 241247.




39


  , The Ten Most Significant Events of The Second Millennium,  The World Almanac and Book of Facts (, -: Primedia, 1999), . 35.




40


 , Disaster and Recovery: The Black Death in Western Europe,           (-: RAND Corporation, 1966), . 12.




41


, The Black Death, . 230. . :  , History of The Black Death in Ireland (, : , 2001), . 41; The Black Death in The Middle Ages, The Dictionary of the Middle Ages, .  .  (-:  , 1982), . 244; , The Black Death, . 3;     , The Black Death and History of Plagues, 13451730, 13451730 (, : , 2000), . 3435.




42


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, . 13.


