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Daniel R. Headrick

Power over Peoples

Technology, Environments, and Western Imperialism, 1400 to the Present



PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

PRINCETON AND OXFORD



2- , 



    

    



          








Power over Peoples: Technology, Environments, and Western Imperialism, 1400 to the Present by Daniel R. Headrick

Copyright  2010 by Princeton University Press



             , 2021









 


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     c  .   ,    ,  ,            .  XV .          .          .       . -, ,        ,     . -,    ,        , , , ,             .             .    ,         .  ,     ,  ,   ,   [5 -    -       XV-XVI .; .: Felipe Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 144-145.].

    .    (   ) ,      ,    ,         .        , ,        . ,           .        ;     , ,          ,               [6 - Leon Kass, The New Biology: What Price Relieving Mans Estate?, Science 174 (November 19, 1971), p. 782.].          ,  ,   ,     ,    ,    .

         ,         .  ,          : ,  1945 .       .          .    , ,            ,    ?       ,     .         .            ,     .                ,   ,        ,    .

       ?    ,     ,    :   ,      ,        [7 - Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989).].           ;          .      ,           : ,   ,      ,           .

       ,  XVXVIII .             [8 - Carlo Cipolla, Guns, Sails, and Empires: Technological Innovation and the Early Phases of European Expansion, 1400-1700 (New York: Random House, 1965);  ,    .     XV-XVIII . (: , 2007); Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).].  XIX  ,      ,    , , ,       .        ;         .      ,            .          ,    .

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       XVI .         ,    .             ,     .         [11 -          XV    : J. H. Parry, The Discovery of the Sea (New York: Dial Press, 1974), chapters 1 and 2.].

   ,  ,  .   ,   ,       XVIII ,     : ,                     [];          [12 - James Cook, The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, ed. John C. Beaglehole (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961), p. 354.].   , ,  ,   ,      ,        .  1300 .      ,         .              ; V      ,    6 .    ; VIII .      [13 -   ,      XIII . . .].

        .       :    ,                   ;     ,    [14 - James Cook, The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768-1771, ed. John C. Beaglehole (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1955), p. 154.].       ,   ,   , .          -  ,      ,     .          ,     ,    ,   ,        .  ,     :       ,  ,        [15 -       .: Ben R. Finney, Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Will Kyselka, An Ocean in Mind (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987); David Lewis, We the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1994).].

      ,          [16 -       ( )      . . .].       ,      ,        ,        [17 - Parry, Discovery, p. 33.].              , ,    ,         .          , ,      ,     [18 - Finney, Voyage, p. 13.].       .  ,    ,          . , ,             ,    ,     .                     .  XV .        ,     ,  ,           .

         ,  .        .    ,    ,    ,      ,      .         ,    ,       ,   .            .       .         ,  -       .

          .   XV .   ,    (- )     ,      .  ,    ,       [19 - Clifford W. Hawkins, The Dhow: An Illustrated History of the Dhow and Its World (Lymington: Nautical Publishing, 1977); Patricia Risso, Oman and Muscat: An Early Modern History (New York: St.Martins, 1986), p.216.      : , ,   . .]      ,    .          .     .   ,       .    ,   ,        .               200 ,         [20 - K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p.146-150; Simon Digby, The Maritime Trade of India, in Tapan Ray-chaudhuri and Irfan Habib, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), vol.1, p.128; P.Y.Manguin, Late Medieval Asian Shipbuilding in the Indian Ocean, Moyen Orient et Ocan Indien 2, no. 2 (1985), p. 3-7; W. H. Moreland, The Ships of the Arabian Sea about A.D. 1500, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (January 1939), p. 66; George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times, revised and expanded by John Carswell (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), . 91-105.       XV .,      ,    ; .: Ahsan Jan Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology and Culture, AD 1498-1707 (Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 23-27.].

    .  ,            ,             ,        . - ,     ,    (    )   . , ,         ,     [21 - I. C. Campbell, The Lateen Sail in World History, Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995), p.1-24; Alan McGowan, The Ship, vol. 3: Tiller and Whipstaff: The Development of the Sailing Ship, 1400-1700 (London: National Maritime Museum, 1981), p. 9; Parry, Discovery, p. 17-20.].        ,  ,                    [22 - William D.Phillips, Maritime Exploration in the Middle Ages, in Daniel Finamore, ed., Maritime History as World History (Salem, Mass.: Peabody Essex Museum, 2004), p. 51.].  ,    ;    ,   ,     ,           .     ,  ! ( 6:97)[23 - E. G. R. Taylor, The Haven Finding Art: A History of Navigation from Odys seus to Captain Cook (London: Hollis and Carter, 1956), p. 126.].            ,          ,     ,       ,     ,          .     ( 15  )    ,       .

  XIII .      [24 - Amir D. Aczel, The Riddle of the Compass: The Invention That Changed the World (New York: Harcourt, 2001); Philip de Souza, Seafaring and Civilization: Maritime Perspectives on World History (London: Profile Books, 2001), p. 34; J. H. Parry, The Establishment of the European Hegemony, 1415-1715: Trade and Exploration in the Age of the Renaissance (New York: Harper and Row, 1961), p. 17; Moreland, Ships, p. 178; Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization, p. 127.].  ,    ,    : ,      .        ,       ,      .        .       ,         , , ,    [25 - Taylor, Haven, p. 123-129.].           .          ,  I .  ,         ,      1489-90 .      XIX [26 - G. R. Tibbetts, Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1971), p. 1-8;   ,        :    XV . (: , 1965).].

           .

,     - ,   ,        ,     ,              . ,      -    ,         ,      .       ,    (  -   ),    ,       .

         .   XV .       ,          .           . , ,              .   VIII .        ,       .               [27 - C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (New York: Knopf, 1969), p. 45-46; Moreland, Ships, p. 64, 174.].         ,             1497 .       ,      .

     .            ,      (960-1279)    -         [28 - Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973), p. 137.].  1127 .,         (),  ,     ,      .      -                .          ,           .

         ,         ,  .      ,      1266 .  .   ,     4400 ,   [29 - William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 43;  -,    . ,      XI-XX  (:  , 2008), . 65.].   ,      1368 . ,        .   XV .    ,  ,    20  30   [30 - Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 75-76.].           .






  ,     , XIV .      



      ,   ,    ,       ,     .         .        .  ,       .                  .   ,     ,  ,           .                    1000 [31 - Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 81-82; Digby, Maritime Trade of India, p. 132-133; Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization, p. 141-142, 154-156; Elvin, Pattern, p. 137.].

  XV .       .  ,    ,    :        .                  ,      .         XI .,    ,         [32 - Aczel, Riddle, p. 78-86; Elvin, Pattern, p. 138; Parry, Discovery, p. 39.].       XII . :       ;       ,     .           [33 - Aczel, Riddle, p. 86.].

 1405 .   ,     ( ),    317 ,     27       ,  -    .       400 ,         -,   .   -  , ,    ,    ,      .    ,   ,  , ,   .

        ,         XV .      ,     ,        .        ,          .    ,   ,    ,      ,   , ,    .      1424 .     ,   ,  ,     ( ),    , , ,    1432-33 .        ,        .          ,        [34 -        : Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas  Edward L. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York: Pearson, 2007). . : Francesca Bray, Technology and Society in Ming China (Washington, D.C.: AHA Publications, 2000), p. 21-22; J.R.Mc-Neill and William H.McNeill, The Human Web: A Birds Eye View of World History (New York: Norton, 2003), p.125-126, 166-167; Felipe Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 109-117.].

     ?        ,   ,      ,                 .           :         .          -    ,        .      , ,     ,     XV .       .        ,     [35 -        ,    ,    : Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered America (New York: Bantam, 2002).].         ,        .              .

       ?         ,      ,    .       , ,    ,      ,  -.  ,  1411 .     ,         .           ,       .     ,              , .          ,                   . -,    , ,    ,     ,      [36 -              1960-70- . .      .: Lo Jung-pang, The Decline of the Early Ming Navy, Oriens Extremus 5 (1958), p. 151-162.].

      ,       .               .    ,       .     .           ,       .       :          .         , , , .    75  150 ,     ,        ,     .                    .

   XIV .     ,       ,         .          .            ;              ,     .  XVI .     ,             XVIII .

   ,      ,     .     ,        :  ,         .      ,    ,    ,     .      ,    ,            [37 - J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450-1650 (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1963), p. 54-63; Pierre Chaunu, Lexpansion europenne duXIIIe auXVe si?cle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1969), p. 274-278; Richard W. Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships in Medieval Europe, Technology and Culture 22 (April 1981), p. 233-252.].

      .       .    ,   ,         .       ,            IX  XI .       ,    ,    :      5-11 ,          .      ,    ;     ,      ,    .      ,   ,         ;       [38 - John R. Hale, The Viking Longship, Scientific American (February 1998), p. 56-62; Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships, p. 241.].         ;      ,  .

     XII . .     ,         .     ,     300 ,        .    ,           ,      ,       .      ,      ;            ,     .       ,     ,      ,     ,    .       ,        ,  ,    ,      ,    .    ,    ,    [39 - Hale, Viking Longship, p. 62; Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships, p. 240-245.].    (     )      XII .   XIII .,               [40 - Lynn White, Jr., Technology in the Middle Ages, in Melvin Kranzberg and Carroll W.Pursell, eds., Technology in Western Civilization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), vol. 1, p. 76; Chaunu, Lexpansion europenne, p. 279; Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships, p. 244.].




  


       ,      ,       . ,   ,  ,        .

  , ,   -            .  XV .    ,      .      ,      .        -     ,    .  ,         ,    .         -                 .    ,    ,        ,    .     ,          .  ,   ,    ,    ,       .

  XV .         .                   ,       .  ,   ,         ,    .        ;    .            ,     50     .             .

 (1394-1460)      I.  1415 .      ,    .      -  ,     .   ,        ,        ,     1375 .  ,  ,      , ,  ,   [41 -        .: Michel Verg-Franceschi, Un prince portugais du XV?me si?cle: Henri le Navigateur, 1394-1460 (Paris: Ed. Flin, 2000); Peter Russell, Prince Henry the Navigator: A Life (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). . : Fernndez-Armes-to, Pathfinders, p. 131.].      -     .      ,      [42 - Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders, p. 148.].     :    ,           ,      .

       1419 .      ,   ,         .   ,   1291 .         ,      [43 - Phillips, Maritime Exploration, p. 55.].  ,    ,     ,        25  30 ,  75     16  .   ,      ,      .      8  14 .     -       (     ).   ,     ,     .

 ,   ,       ,     ,  ,  .     ,       .          ,      ,    ,                 .   ,              ,         ,     1000    [44 - Quirino da Fonseca, Os navios do infante D. Henrique (Lisbon: Comiss?o Executiva das Comemora??es do Quinto Centenrio da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, 1958), p. 15-40; Jo?o Braz dOliveira, Influencia do Infante D. Henrique no progresso da marinha portugueza: Navios e armamentos (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1894), p. 17-20; Henrique Lopes de Mendon?a, Estudios sobre naviosportuguezes nos secolos XV eXVI (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias, 1892), p. 15-17; Eila M.J. Campbell, Discovery and the Technical Setting, 1420-1520, Terrae In-cognitae 8 (1976), p.12; Boies Penrose, Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance, 14201620 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 269; Parry, Discovery, p. 109-122.]          :



 [] ,  ,   ,   ,  - ;    ,   ,    ,  ,   ;    ,             .   ,   ,  ,     .       ,   [45 - . : Luis de Albuquerque, Introdu??o a histria dos descubrimentos (Coimbra: Atlantida, 1962), p. 249.].


   ,    ,  1427-31 .   .   ,  40     ,       ,            .       ,        .            ,            .              (. volta do mar largo)[46 - Roger Craig Smith, Vanguard of Empire: Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 4O].

,  1434 .        .            .  1445 .     ,    .           -       .      1460 .      ,        ,   .      .

          .                ,           .         .

   ,       ,   .  1430- .                   ,               ,    .          - ,           .  ,                  .     ,      .      50  70 ,    150    100 [47 -           .  ,     ,   (   ) .].

      ,     .           ,        . ,     XV .,     .      .       ,     -,     ,       -  -      -,       -,         .       ,                   20-25 .   1440- .          .   -,         .

    ,      [48 - . : Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 35.].         .      .    , ,   ,      .           .   ,      ,           .                   .      ;  ,    ,  [49 - Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders, p. 143.].   ,    ,   ,     ,     ,             .   ,    ,    ,       ,  .                 ,            .

,   XV .       100  400      ,   , .       (nau    nao    )[50 -     (Clinton R. Edwards, Design and Construction of Fifteenth-Century Iberian Ships: A Review, Mariners Mirror 78 (November 1992), p. 419-432)   (McGowan, The Ship, vol. 3, p. 10),           .   .  (K. M. Mathew, History of the Portuguese Navigation in India, 14971600 (Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1988), p.280-292),   (John H.Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the History of the Mediterranean, 649-1571 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 39-43)   (Smith, Vanguard, p. 31-32)    .  , -      ,     .      ,       .].






- XV .   ,     .

     



      ,  ;          .       : -  -     (   ),     -    ;       ,      ,      .       -  .       XVI .     ,   [51 - Clinton R.Edwards, The Impact of European Overseas Discoveries on Ship Design and Construction during the Sixteenth Century, GeoJournal 26, no. 4 (1992), p. 443-452; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 53, 66.].






- XV .      ,       .

     



 1470 .      ,        -  -.        ,      ,        :    ,    ,              .

     .  1482-84 .      .  1487 .               .         ,      - .        .   -,     ,                  .    :    ,   ,     ,     ,    .    ,     .     .        ,     ,     (     )   250      [52 -      1460-96 . .: Parry, Discovery, p. 133-142.].

  ,       .    ,         ,      .    ,            .     [53 - Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 108-116; Parry, Discovery, p. 130-131.].

   , 8  1497 .            .   , -  -,      .       .          100  120 ,     ,       .      ,                .  ,            ,    [54 - Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 79; Smith, Vanguard, p. 32, 46-47.].

       ,        . ,   II     ,             26   ,    I,      1495  1521 .       ,   II,         ,              .     ,          ,                 ,  -      [55 - Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p.139; . : Oliveira, Influencia, p. 24-25.].

       ,     ,     ,   ,      .   ,    ,        ,      - .          ,   ,     ,    -,      -   ,      ,      .    ,          ,       130      .              .             .             ,           [56 - Subrahmanyam, Career, p. 83-85; Parry, Discovery, p. 169-170; Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, p. 118; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 50; McGowan, The Ship, vol. 3, p. 18.].

              ,     .   1498 .     ,      ,         27 .   ,        ,   ;      ,   ,      , ,    ,    [57 -   ,       ,   (Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 140-141; Parry, Discovery, p.174)  - (A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 14151808: A World on the Move (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), p. 18).  (Tibbetts, Arab Navigation)   .    (Subrah-manyam, Career, p. 121-128),              1920- .     .].   1498 .    ,     .

            .        .      ,   ,      ,       .            ,    -.        ,    ,      .             1499 .







   ,           ,       .        ,    ,      ,    .     ,   ,          ,   .        ,    .

         ,  .      ,     .       XIV .    ,       ,    ,             360 [58 - Aczel, Riddle, p. 61, 103-104.].

    ,        ,       .  1454 .,     , -    ,            .              (  ,     ,   )      0  90 ,          ,         .        ,        ,       .     ,       16%         17 ,   ,     [59 -       XV . .: Parry, Discovery, p. 155-163,  Taylor, Haven, p. 158-160.].

         ,   ,     .       ,           ,   .  ,         , ,     ,   ,    .    ,   ,   .        ,           ,         ,       .

       .    ໠              .      ,    .            ,   ,     ,     .             .                 XVI .

 XVI .         .   ,         ,    ;       ,  ,     .                  ,        ,    .           ,      .    ,     .

     , , ,           ,      .      ,       ,        .         ,    [60 - Albuquerque, Introdu??o, p. 233-400; Mathew, Portuguese Navigation, p. 6-34; Taylor, Haven, p. 158-159; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 93; Parry, Discovery, p. 148; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 264.].

           ,      .  1484 .   II    ,     ,           .  ,     ,    ,   ,      (Almanach perpetuum) (1473-78),     ,         .         ,          ()      ,         .  1485 .  ,     ,            .               1509 .[61 - Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 94-96; Parry, Discovery, p. 148-149; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 44-45, 265.           .: Albuquerque, Introdu??o, p. 255-263,  Mathew, Portuguese Navigation, p. 34-38.]                 ,       ,    XV .               XVIII .

  ,            .   XVI .         :



     ,      ?      , , ,   ,    ;  ,     ,           ;       ;      , ,    ,      ,      ,   [62 - Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus (Boston: Little Brown, 1942), p. 186-187.] .


     ,     ,  ,    ,       .           : ,    ,  ;  ,    ,   ,       ,  ,     .            ,    .           ,     .      ,        ,  ,     ,  ,      ,            ,      .       [63 - Finney, Voyage, p. 266-267; Parry, Discovery, p. 147.],   ,  ,          ,      .

  XV .          ,   . ,   ,  ,  ,      ,       .       ,        ,      .         ,           .          ,              .

               ,   .        (   routiers),   ,    ,        .    ,         .   , ,     ,         .

            ,         .           , ,         ,     .            (   ,      ),          .     1569 .     (         )  -    ,   -   [64 - Aczel, Riddle, p. 124-125; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 84-114.].

     1498 .          .    ,   ,      - ,       ,      ,   .

   ,     ,             (. Casa da India e da Mina),  ,     ,    .          ;    .         ,    .     ,     .               ,        .        ,       ,  ,  , -       (  ).         [ ] ,          [65 - Tom Pires, The Suma Oriental of Tom Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, ed. and trans. Armando Cortes?o (London: Hakluyt Society, 1944).].          XVI .  ,         [66 - Auguste Toussaint, History of the Indian Ocean, trans. June Guichar-naud (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 115-117; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 96.].




 


       ,   ,      .       ,   ,     c ,        ,  ,   .         ,         .     ,       ,     ,  .

            , , , , ,   .            .            ,     .

 ,     ,   ,    ,       .     ,       ,      ,          ,  ,   ,             黠    [67 - . : Morison, Admiral, p. 93-94.].

        .            ,       ,         .         ,        ,        ;    ,          [68 - William D. Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), P. 76-79.       . : Morison, Admiral, chapter 6: The Enterprise of the Indies.].  ,          ,    ,     19 000  ,       .

 1476  1485 .    .              ,   ,     ,        5000           (    ).    ,         .    ,     (  ,     )       ,     30          1500       ; ,  ,      2400    ,    %  [69 - Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 108-110.].     ,    ,   ,        []     [70 - Samuel Eliot Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 30.].

 1484-85 .       II,       .  ,     ,     ,              ,      [71 - Morison, The European Discovery of America, p. 31; . : Morison, Admiral, p. 68-69,  Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 110-111.].   ,  1485 .    .   1486 .        ,       , ,       .             3000     .   ,  ,   .

   ,    ,            .    II      ,  ,   ,     ,      , ,       .     ,    .            ,      , ,               [72 - Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p.120-131; Morison, Admiral, p. 75; Morison, European Discovery, p. 40.].  ,        ,           .

      ,    . ,     ,   ,     .      . ,    ,          ,        (     ,   -)[73 - Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 132.].                  !

          ,    .      -   62    ,   .          ---   ,         -,    ,    [74 -      .: Carla Rahn Phillips, The Caravel and the Galleon, in Robert Gardiner, ed., Cogs, Caravels, and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 10001650 (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1994), p. 91-114; Chaunu, Lexpansion europenne, 283-288; Parry, Discovery, p. 28-29, 140-143; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, 269-270; Smith, Vanguard, p. 34-41.].                ,        - .   .    ,   ,         .   -,      ,      ,      [75 - Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, 108; Morison, Europe an Discovery, p. 82-85.].

   ,        , .   ,       , ,  ,    ,         .   ,    ,        [76 -     (Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 75) ,           .     (Parry, Discovery, p. 202-203),               .   (Morison, European Discovery, p. 55), ,   ,   ,        .].    ,   ,              .

  ,   1493_95 .,    ,       .         .           ,    .          -     35 .       ,     .          ,            [77 - Morison, European Discovery, p. 119, 138.].             -      ,    ,         ,        .

 ,     ,     .                 .  ,    ,   .    ,       .      (  )  ,     ,     (. las Indias),     ,      .

        ,        ,      .  1513 .           ,        ( ),         .

   ,   ,     ,         .    ,          ,  ,  -  .        .    XV .     ,              ,    . ,  ,      .  1517 .        (. Casa de Contratacin),  ,                [78 -      1505 .     ,        ,   ,     1524 .; .: Morison, European Discovery, p. 474.]






,   (   , 1590 .)



         ,          [79 -     ,      : Tim Joyner, Magellan (Camden, Maine: International Marine, 1992),  Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellans Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe (New York: Morrow, 2003).].

      ,   100 , -  ,    ,  .     ,       ,  ,   ,    . ,                   ,     .

    ,       .                   .      35 , 16        (), 7   21  ,       .  ,    .              .     , , ,     ,    .  ,     ,   ,   [80 - Donald D. Brand, Geographical Exploration by the Spaniards, in Herman R. Friis, ed., The Pacific Basin: A History of Its Geographical Exploration (New York: American Geographical Society, 1967), p. 111-113; Morison, European Discovery, p. 177, 343; Parry, Discovery, p. 270.].

  ,    .           , ,     .  ,   ,     ,        [81 - Parry, Discovery, p. 265-266.].      ,    ,   ,    ,    .

               .      1520 .      ,           .    ,    ,        38  -     .

18  1520 .  ,        (       ,   ),    .       ,      .    -  ,   ,     ,  . , ,      ,   ,        .  ,        (  ).      ,     ,    ,    ,       .         .      .      .     ,     .        .  ,    .  6  1521 .          [82 - Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 112-118; Morison, European Discovery, p. 405-409; Parry, Discovery, p. 276.].     ,      ,   ,  13   .             .

    ,         :   ,        ,        .   ,       ,  ,            ,    180    ,     1494 .         ( )  ,       .

        ,                , ,       .             ,     .

      ,      . ,     , ,     ,   1511 .           ,         4-6      ,    [83 - Morison, European Discovery, p. 316-317.].    ,  ,         .        , ,   ,      .     ,  ,     .    ,   ,       (      ),     [84 -     (Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 118); . : Simon Winchester, After dire straits, an agonizing haul across the Pacific, Smithsonian 22, no. 1 (April 1991), p. 92-95.].   1522 .         ,           Primum Circumdedesti me[85 -     (.).].

      ,    ,    ,                  .             ,        padrn real ( )      ,      .  1529 .         ,     ,      ,     [86 - Parry, Discovery, p. 287; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 112; Taylor, Haven, p. 174; Morison, European Discovery, p. 474-475.].

                        30- .  ,      ,       .             .         ,    ,        ,      . ,          ,      ,     .    42-  43-   ,  ,          ,    [87 - William Lytle Schurtz, The Manila Galleon (New York: Dutton, 1959), p. 217-218; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 119.].    (1526-27)       ,    ,   ,    ,        .   (1527-28),        ,   ,  .  (1542-43)              ,      .   ,       ,        30-   , ,     ,     [88 - Pierre Chaunu, Le Galion de Manille: Grandeur et dcadence dune route de la soie, Annales ESC 4 (OctoberDecember 1951), p. 450; Morison, European Discovery, p. 477-493; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 119-121.].

           .     ,   ,           .           .        ,    :      -  -,            ;    -   ( )      .                   .   XVI .     .     ,     [1450-1550]     ,    5000   400  [89 - Bjorn Landstrom, The Ship: An Illustrated History (New York: Doubleday, 1961), p.118. . : J.H.Parry, The Spanish Seaborne Empire (New York: Knopf, 1966), p. 134.].

 1564 .            ,      .     ,   ,      ( ,    ) -      .      -     ,        ,    .     -  ,       40-  43-  (  ),     .               .    - ,    .    111 ,    114[90 - Chaunu, Galion, p. 451-452; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 129-130; Schurtz, Manila Galleon, p. 219-220; Morison, European Discovery, p. 493-494.]




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notes








1


D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973), p. 3.




2


    ,     ,   :  ,  ,  ,   (),  , - ,  ,  ,  . . ,  ,  ,  ,  .




3


       (Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, p. 460-461),   :           1880 .?




4


Daniel R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).




5


   -       XV-XVI .; .: Felipe Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 144-145.




6


Leon Kass, The New Biology: What Price Relieving Mans Estate?, Science 174 (November 19, 1971), p. 782.




7


Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989).




8


Carlo Cipolla, Guns, Sails, and Empires: Technological Innovation and the Early Phases of European Expansion, 1400-1700 (New York: Random House, 1965);  ,    .     XV-XVIII . (: , 2007); Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).




9


       : Jared M.Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1997);  , ,   .    (: Corpus, 2012).




10


  (.)           . . .




11


         XV    : J. H. Parry, The Discovery of the Sea (New York: Dial Press, 1974), chapters 1 and 2.




12


James Cook, The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, ed. John C. Beaglehole (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961), p. 354.




13


  ,      XIII . . .




14


James Cook, The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768-1771, ed. John C. Beaglehole (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1955), p. 154.




15


      .: Ben R. Finney, Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Will Kyselka, An Ocean in Mind (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987); David Lewis, We the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1994).




16


      ( )      . . .




17


Parry, Discovery, p. 33.




18


Finney, Voyage, p. 13.




19


Clifford W. Hawkins, The Dhow: An Illustrated History of the Dhow and Its World (Lymington: Nautical Publishing, 1977); Patricia Risso, Oman and Muscat: An Early Modern History (New York: St.Martins, 1986), p.216.      : , ,   . .




20


K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p.146-150; Simon Digby, The Maritime Trade of India, in Tapan Ray-chaudhuri and Irfan Habib, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), vol.1, p.128; P.Y.Manguin, Late Medieval Asian Shipbuilding in the Indian Ocean, Moyen Orient et Ocan Indien 2, no. 2 (1985), p. 3-7; W. H. Moreland, The Ships of the Arabian Sea about A.D. 1500, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (January 1939), p. 66; George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times, revised and expanded by John Carswell (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), . 91-105.       XV .,      ,    ; .: Ahsan Jan Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology and Culture, AD 1498-1707 (Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 23-27.




21


I. C. Campbell, The Lateen Sail in World History, Journal of World History 6 (Spring 1995), p.1-24; Alan McGowan, The Ship, vol. 3: Tiller and Whipstaff: The Development of the Sailing Ship, 1400-1700 (London: National Maritime Museum, 1981), p. 9; Parry, Discovery, p. 17-20.




22


William D.Phillips, Maritime Exploration in the Middle Ages, in Daniel Finamore, ed., Maritime History as World History (Salem, Mass.: Peabody Essex Museum, 2004), p. 51.




23


E. G. R. Taylor, The Haven Finding Art: A History of Navigation from Odys seus to Captain Cook (London: Hollis and Carter, 1956), p. 126.




24


Amir D. Aczel, The Riddle of the Compass: The Invention That Changed the World (New York: Harcourt, 2001); Philip de Souza, Seafaring and Civilization: Maritime Perspectives on World History (London: Profile Books, 2001), p. 34; J. H. Parry, The Establishment of the European Hegemony, 1415-1715: Trade and Exploration in the Age of the Renaissance (New York: Harper and Row, 1961), p. 17; Moreland, Ships, p. 178; Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization, p. 127.




25


Taylor, Haven, p. 123-129.




26


G. R. Tibbetts, Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1971), p. 1-8;   ,        :    XV . (: , 1965).




27


C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (New York: Knopf, 1969), p. 45-46; Moreland, Ships, p. 64, 174.




28


Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973), p. 137.




29


William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 43;  -,    . ,      XI-XX  (:  , 2008), . 65.




30


Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 75-76.




31


Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 81-82; Digby, Maritime Trade of India, p. 132-133; Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilization, p. 141-142, 154-156; Elvin, Pattern, p. 137.




32


Aczel, Riddle, p. 78-86; Elvin, Pattern, p. 138; Parry, Discovery, p. 39.




33


Aczel, Riddle, p. 86.




34


       : Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas  Edward L. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York: Pearson, 2007). . : Francesca Bray, Technology and Society in Ming China (Washington, D.C.: AHA Publications, 2000), p. 21-22; J.R.Mc-Neill and William H.McNeill, The Human Web: A Birds Eye View of World History (New York: Norton, 2003), p.125-126, 166-167; Felipe Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 109-117.




35


       ,    ,    : Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered America (New York: Bantam, 2002).




36


             1960-70- . .      .: Lo Jung-pang, The Decline of the Early Ming Navy, Oriens Extremus 5 (1958), p. 151-162.




37


J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450-1650 (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1963), p. 54-63; Pierre Chaunu, Lexpansion europenne duXIIIe auXVe si?cle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1969), p. 274-278; Richard W. Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships in Medieval Europe, Technology and Culture 22 (April 1981), p. 233-252.




38


John R. Hale, The Viking Longship, Scientific American (February 1998), p. 56-62; Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships, p. 241.




39


Hale, Viking Longship, p. 62; Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships, p. 240-245.




40


Lynn White, Jr., Technology in the Middle Ages, in Melvin Kranzberg and Carroll W.Pursell, eds., Technology in Western Civilization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), vol. 1, p. 76; Chaunu, Lexpansion europenne, p. 279; Unger, Warships and Cargo Ships, p. 244.




41


       .: Michel Verg-Franceschi, Un prince portugais du XV?me si?cle: Henri le Navigateur, 1394-1460 (Paris: Ed. Flin, 2000); Peter Russell, Prince Henry the Navigator: A Life (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). . : Fernndez-Armes-to, Pathfinders, p. 131.




42


Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders, p. 148.




43


Phillips, Maritime Exploration, p. 55.




44


Quirino da Fonseca, Os navios do infante D. Henrique (Lisbon: Comiss?o Executiva das Comemora??es do Quinto Centenrio da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, 1958), p. 15-40; Jo?o Braz dOliveira, Influencia do Infante D. Henrique no progresso da marinha portugueza: Navios e armamentos (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1894), p. 17-20; Henrique Lopes de Mendon?a, Estudios sobre naviosportuguezes nos secolos XV eXVI (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias, 1892), p. 15-17; Eila M.J. Campbell, Discovery and the Technical Setting, 1420-1520, Terrae In-cognitae 8 (1976), p.12; Boies Penrose, Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance, 14201620 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 269; Parry, Discovery, p. 109-122.




45


. : Luis de Albuquerque, Introdu??o a histria dos descubrimentos (Coimbra: Atlantida, 1962), p. 249.




46


Roger Craig Smith, Vanguard of Empire: Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 4O




47


          .  ,     ,   (   ) .




48


. : Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 35.




49


Fernndez-Armesto, Pathfinders, p. 143.




50


    (Clinton R. Edwards, Design and Construction of Fifteenth-Century Iberian Ships: A Review, Mariners Mirror 78 (November 1992), p. 419-432)   (McGowan, The Ship, vol. 3, p. 10),           .   .  (K. M. Mathew, History of the Portuguese Navigation in India, 14971600 (Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1988), p.280-292),   (John H.Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the History of the Mediterranean, 649-1571 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 39-43)   (Smith, Vanguard, p. 31-32)    .  , -      ,     .      ,       .




51


Clinton R.Edwards, The Impact of European Overseas Discoveries on Ship Design and Construction during the Sixteenth Century, GeoJournal 26, no. 4 (1992), p. 443-452; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 53, 66.




52


     1460-96 . .: Parry, Discovery, p. 133-142.




53


Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 108-116; Parry, Discovery, p. 130-131.




54


Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 79; Smith, Vanguard, p. 32, 46-47.




55


Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p.139; . : Oliveira, Influencia, p. 24-25.




56


Subrahmanyam, Career, p. 83-85; Parry, Discovery, p. 169-170; Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, p. 118; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 50; McGowan, The Ship, vol. 3, p. 18.




57


  ,       ,   (Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 140-141; Parry, Discovery, p.174)  - (A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 14151808: A World on the Move (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), p. 18).  (Tibbetts, Arab Navigation)   .    (Subrah-manyam, Career, p. 121-128),              1920- .     .




58


Aczel, Riddle, p. 61, 103-104.




59


      XV . .: Parry, Discovery, p. 155-163,  Taylor, Haven, p. 158-160.




60


Albuquerque, Introdu??o, p. 233-400; Mathew, Portuguese Navigation, p. 6-34; Taylor, Haven, p. 158-159; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 93; Parry, Discovery, p. 148; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 264.




61


Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 94-96; Parry, Discovery, p. 148-149; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, p. 44-45, 265.           .: Albuquerque, Introdu??o, p. 255-263,  Mathew, Portuguese Navigation, p. 34-38.




62


Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus (Boston: Little Brown, 1942), p. 186-187.




63


Finney, Voyage, p. 266-267; Parry, Discovery, p. 147.




64


Aczel, Riddle, p. 124-125; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 84-114.




65


Tom Pires, The Suma Oriental of Tom Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, ed. and trans. Armando Cortes?o (London: Hakluyt Society, 1944).




66


Auguste Toussaint, History of the Indian Ocean, trans. June Guichar-naud (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 115-117; Parry, Age of Reconnaissance, p. 96.




67


. : Morison, Admiral, p. 93-94.




68


William D. Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), P. 76-79.       . : Morison, Admiral, chapter 6: The Enterprise of the Indies.




69


Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 108-110.




70


Samuel Eliot Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 30.




71


Morison, The European Discovery of America, p. 31; . : Morison, Admiral, p. 68-69,  Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 110-111.




72


Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p.120-131; Morison, Admiral, p. 75; Morison, European Discovery, p. 40.




73


Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 132.




74


     .: Carla Rahn Phillips, The Caravel and the Galleon, in Robert Gardiner, ed., Cogs, Caravels, and Galleons: The Sailing Ship, 10001650 (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1994), p. 91-114; Chaunu, Lexpansion europenne, 283-288; Parry, Discovery, p. 28-29, 140-143; Penrose, Travel and Discovery, 269-270; Smith, Vanguard, p. 34-41.




75


Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, 108; Morison, Europe an Discovery, p. 82-85.




76


    (Phillips and Phillips, Christopher Columbus, p. 75) ,           .     (Parry, Discovery, p. 202-203),               .   (Morison, European Discovery, p. 55), ,   ,   ,        .




77


Morison, European Discovery, p. 119, 138.




78


     1505 .     ,        ,   ,     1524 .; .: Morison, European Discovery, p. 474.




79


    ,      : Tim Joyner, Magellan (Camden, Maine: International Marine, 1992),  Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellans Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe (New York: Morrow, 2003).




80


Donald D. Brand, Geographical Exploration by the Spaniards, in Herman R. Friis, ed., The Pacific Basin: A History of Its Geographical Exploration (New York: American Geographical Society, 1967), p. 111-113; Morison, European Discovery, p. 177, 343; Parry, Discovery, p. 270.




81


Parry, Discovery, p. 265-266.




82


Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 112-118; Morison, European Discovery, p. 405-409; Parry, Discovery, p. 276.




83


Morison, European Discovery, p. 316-317.




84


    (Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 118); . : Simon Winchester, After dire straits, an agonizing haul across the Pacific, Smithsonian 22, no. 1 (April 1991), p. 92-95.




85


    (.).




86


Parry, Discovery, p. 287; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 112; Taylor, Haven, p. 174; Morison, European Discovery, p. 474-475.




87


William Lytle Schurtz, The Manila Galleon (New York: Dutton, 1959), p. 217-218; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 119.




88


Pierre Chaunu, Le Galion de Manille: Grandeur et dcadence dune route de la soie, Annales ESC 4 (OctoberDecember 1951), p. 450; Morison, European Discovery, p. 477-493; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 119-121.




89


Bjorn Landstrom, The Ship: An Illustrated History (New York: Doubleday, 1961), p.118. . : J.H.Parry, The Spanish Seaborne Empire (New York: Knopf, 1966), p. 134.




90


Chaunu, Galion, p. 451-452; Brand, Geographical Exploration, p. 129-130; Schurtz, Manila Galleon, p. 219-220; Morison, European Discovery, p. 493-494.


