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  PDF A4   .





 

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Johnjoe McFadden

LIFE IS SIMPLE

How Occams Razor Set Science Free And Unlocked The Universe



 Johnjoe McFadden Limited, 2021

  ..,    , 2023

    .    -, 2023





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Kirkus Reviews



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 1964.   -     .                      -.    35.   ,   ,     ,    1939   .   ,  ,   .    ()  ,  ,   , ,   .       .             .                 Bell Laboratories.        .    .

,            ,    100         ,            ,     .         ,     ,       (MIT),  ,    .          ,         .






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 1959 Bell Laboratories        ,  .              ,   Bell Laboratories        ,      . ,             . 20 1964    .  ,    ,          .     . ,     ,       ,    ,     ,   [1 - Wilkinson D. T., Peebles P. In: Particle Physics and the Universe. World Scientific, 2001. 136141.].  .

   ,     -   ,  .        ,   ,   ,    -,    ,  .     ,     ,  ,     .   ,    ,     ,    . ,         ,       ,     .

        .    ,        ,       ,   .           ,           .         ,    -     [2 -    (18891953)      XX,              (    )    .            . . .]   ,     .      ,               .  ,  ,    , ,        , ,  ,  ,         14  .

   , ,   ,       .     ,          ,             .  ,          ,     MIT.   ,      ,   ,      .  ,           ,         .

            .                 . ,       ,     ,     ,    ?    .        ,       .  ,        ,       ,    . ,  ,      :  , ,  .  : ,    ,    .

        Bell Laboratories,           .  ,   ,          .           ,   ,     .    ,          .      1978    .            (NASA)      (Cosmic Background Explorer)     ,              1/100000  .   ,    ,          .    ,  ,     (ESA)    , 1998,         .






.2.    ,   



      ,      ,        .      ,    ,        ,           .   ,           , ,  .     -  0,00001,      .          ,       (PITP), , ,      ,      [  ],    ,     [3 - Turok N. The Astonishing Simplicity of Everything (     , , , 7 2015.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1x-9lgX8GaE].

 ,    ,   , 14    ,    ,    -  .    ,        ,    ,    ,    ,     -   ,        .

         ,     ,   ,     ,              .      [4 -        ,         . . .]               .      ,        [5 -     ,         ,       ,        . . .] (   ),        .   ,  20 ,      , ,     ;   ,              .    ,       :         ,     -    ,    .

    ,           ,     ,       XIII.    -,    ,        .     ,      ,            .                ,        ,  ,   [6 - Sober E. Ockhams Razors. Cambridge University Press, 2015.].

       :      .     ,      .  ,        ,       ,  ,   ,     ,    - ,   .   ,        ,        :      [7 - . :  .  / . . ..   ..,  . . .. . .:  , 2002. .146.]      ,       ,         [8 -  . . xiv.].

               ,     ,     .   ,     ,      ,     ,       .   ,        .   ,               ,              ,     .

      ,   ,            .            ,           ,       .       .         - ,              , ,     ,   ,    14       .    ,    , ,  ,   ,      [9 - .  .. .],[10 - Doyle A. C. The Sign of Four. Broadview Press, 2010.]. ,     , ,          ,    ,  :        ,  ,      .

      ,          ,     ,       .                   .     ,  ,           , , , ,       .      ,      ,            ,    ,   ,  ,        .        ,     ,          .  1930   : [  ]             [11 -    . :  .  ,      //   :  4. .: , 1966. . 2.     19211955. . 279.],[12 - Barnett L. and Einstein A. The Universe and Dr Einstein. Courier Corporation, 2005.].          .

    .         ,            ,       ,      -.    -   ,      .          .      ,   ,   ,     ,       COVID-19,     ,     .          , ,        .

,     ,        .   ,     [13 - .  . .],        .           ,                 .            :   ,   -  :             -:    ,    ,      [14 - .  . .].         KISS (. Keep it simple, stupid),    , .   ,  1960-   ,      ,       ,   .       .

   ,       .         .                      ,       .   ,          .  ,     ,     [15 - Wootton D. The Invention of Science: ANew History of the Scientific Revolution Penguin, 2015. ( .  .     / . . . . .: , 2018); Gribbin J. Science: AHistory. Penguin, 2003; Ignotofsky R. Women in Science: 50Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World. Ten Speed Press, 2016. ( .   : 50,   / . . . . .: , 2020); Kuhn T.S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press, 2012. ( .    / . . .. . .: , 2015.)].

 , , ,   ,        ,          ,     .    ,   ,  ,  .     ,               .            ,   ,   ,      .          ,     ,       . ,       ,      .

 ,       ,     ,     ,       ,    ,     ,    .      ,    ,   ,     ,           .           ,          ,          .                   ,      .  ,  ,   ,          ,        .   ,             ,    ,         .           ,  ,    ,  ,     ,    .

      .




 I







1

   


   ,   , , , , ,   ,      ,  ,  ,      .  ,       .

  .  - (1334)[16 - de Ockham G. and Ockham W. William of Ockham. A Letter to the Friars Minor and Other Writings. Cambridge University Press, 1995.]




 26 1328             ,    ,    ,     -,   60  -  ;        .       (  ),       .       .         ,      ,   .  ,  ,  ,   -    (,    ,  ).           ,     ,       .      ,        ,     .    ,      ,        .

         [17 -                   .        . . .].  -    ,  ,  [18 - Knysh G. Biographical Rectifications Concerning Ockhams Avignon Period // Franciscan Studies. 1986, 46. 6191.],     .   ,   ,     ,         ,                   .         ,       .

     ,      .                  ,    -       .  ,     .            .      ,        .    ,      , ,  ,        .

,      ,    .     .          (            ),      ,    ,   ,        ,       .     ,            . ,  ,     ,    ,       ,          ,        ,  ,   ,    ,      .   ,     ,    3          .    , ,   ,       ,    , .

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          ,   ,      ,   .     ,      ,     ,      ,  ,      ,      .

    ,      ,    . ?  . , , !  .     .   ,    :   ,  !      Veni Creator Spiritus (,  ),      :  ,      !      .

    ,            .      ,    ,            ,   .      ,      ,      .  ,   , ,           ?[19 - . :   ,   .    / . . .. . .: , 2008.],[20 - Villehardouin G. and De Joinville J. Chronicles of the Crusades. Courier Corporation, 2012.]


,       ,         ?     ,       ,  .

   1288 ,          -  .        ,    ⠫  [21 -   ໠    ,   1086.    . . .],  1086,              .  ,      ,   ,   ,       ,  , ,    ,         ,   ,         .     26,  ,   ,     40, ,   20,  . ,      ໠   :        [22 -         , .. ,   ,    ,    ,   .       ,    ,  ,        .         . . .].      - ,     ,                 .        ,      ,  [23 -        . . .].    15,          .

  ,     ,   ,        ,      .        ,    ,    . -,  -    ,     ,       . -,      1086,           .            ,    ,      ,  ,     ,    .

     ,    ,      .  ,          .   ,           ,   -[24 -  -    ,          (, ,     )     ,      .     (   ) ,      -,  XIV.      . . .].  ,       ,           .         ,      ,     .     ,        :      .        .          .      ,    ,       .

           ,       .       ,     ,     ,            .        ,      ,  :    -                  [25 - Evans J. Life in Medieval France. Phaidon Paperback, 1957.].       ,        ,   1305,      ,           (. Greyfriars,    ), studium generale[26 - Studium generale (,  , )      , ..   ,   . . .]      ,     .

        -  ,      ,       ,  .            ,    ,  ,   ,     ,     .       ,      ,       .  ,    ,             ,  ,  -[27 -     . bladder   .         . . .]  [28 -        flesh    ambles  . . .],    ;    ,       ,           ,       -.  ,  ,          ,     .

 ,   studium generale,        ,                    ,  ,      ,          .      ,        (. trivium),    [29 -             ,       . . .]: ,  ()  ,    (. quadrivium),     ,   ,      - : ,   .

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     ,           .      scientia,   .          , ,  ,    ,         .  ,    ,    ,   ,    ? ,    ,     .  ,      scientia     ,   ,  , ,    .

  ,  ,     (    )       ,    ()  (    ),  III IV  ..,     V VI .., , , .          ,  ,  ,   ,   : ,          (De Animalibus)[31 -    De Animalibus         :  ,       . . .],   ,      ,  I IV.             (Tractatus de Sphaera),  1230   ,          ,         ,   .          ,        .

     1308 1320,    .    ,       ,      ,      [32 - Sparavigna A. C. The Light Linking Dante Alighieri to Robert Grosseteste // PHILICA. 2016. Article 572.],       ; , ,   ,      .      ,     ,          [33 - Gill M. J. Angels and the Order of Heaven in Medieval and Renaissance Italy Cambridge University Press, 2014.],               .

           .      ,    ,     [34 -    ,    ,  ,        ,       . . .].           ,   .           ,         (.     ),    , , ,  . ,       ,      ,  ,   ,     ( ,  ).        ,   .  ,      ,        .     ,              ,   .






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          539  ..,           ,     .         ,     ,     .  ,     ,   (585528 ..)   (    ),    ,       ,   ,     ,  ,  , ,           .    ,   ,      :    ,       .   ,       ,  ,     (),    ,  .

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.4.      ,       



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    ,      .    428  ..   .    ,   ,     ,      ,   .          , , ,   ,       .  ,         ,    ,  -,       .

      ,               ,   .   ?  .      ,       .     ,           .          ,         .  ,     ,      ?

      .        , , , , , , , , , ,    .         ,          ,    ,         ,     .   ,      ,     , ,   ?

     ,            ,   ,        ,       ,         .  ,  ,  ,   ,      ,       .      .     ,       ,    ,      [36 -       ,       . . .].

        ,  ,               ,      ,   . ,    ( ),     ,         .    ,         ,        ,   ,     ,   .   ,      ,       .   ,          [    ]:           ,     ,  ,   ,   [37 - . : .  / . . . .  //   :  1. .: -, 2016. . 891.],[38 - Jowett B. and Campbell L. Platos Republic. Clarendon Press, 1894. Vol.3. . 518.].

     ,        ,          .     ,    ,     ,    ,   .  ,      ,   ,        ,      .      ,   ,   , , ,        , ,        ,     []  [39 - . :  ..    :    XVII. .: , 1976. . 49.],[40 - Smith A. M. Saving the Appearances of the Appearances: The Foundations of Classical Geometrical Optics// Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 181. 7399.].  ,                 .

,       ,      (. 408 .355 ..),             . ,      ,       ,      ,    .5       (    ,     ). -          ,     .  ,          ,   .       ,      .  ,           ,        ().       ,  ,         .     ,    ,       ,   ,     .   ,    ,   ,    ,    .  -   ,     , ,       ,  ,       ,       .         .

  ,     ,          ,   ,      27 ,   .   ,    ,    ,      ,          .  ,      56.    .        ,                 .       ,      ( ),   ( )  .      ,     ?






.5.     



         (   , . 100 . 170),        ,    .    ,       [41 -      . . .],  III  .. ,     .5    ,  ,     ,    ,      .       ,   ,       [42 -        ,     ,          ()     . . .],     ,    .           ,   ,          ?      .

           .         : -,    (   .5)  ,    ,  ,   ,    . -,          , ,     ,        ,  .

            ,   150.     ,     80, ,   .           . ,       ,  ,      .  ,    ,       ,   .      ,     ,           ,       , , , .             .       ,      ,        ,       ,    .

 ,   ,     ?   ,       ,                 ,      .   ,       ,    ,       ,           ?  ,   ,      ,   ,    ?    ?

   ,    ,      .                     ,    ,      .   ,        ,         .                 .        ,     .


 

       .            .     ,             .   ( ),   300 ..,   ,     ,      ,  . ,    ,  -  .   ,     ,   ,   ,     .    -,         [43 - Deakin M. A. Hypatia and Her Mathematics // American Mathematical Monthly. 1994. 101. 234243.]. , ,           ,          .        ,     415:                  ,         [44 - Charles R. H. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenbergs Ethiopic Text. Arx Publishing, 2007. Vol. 4.].  ,       , , ,      .  ,         ,  ,           ,     ,  . ,  ,         (. 400.) ,      ,  ,  [45 -  (. , )   ,         . . .]:   []   ,     . []      ,    :    ,    [][46 - . :  ,   / . .. //      :  2.  II.  -    . .:  i, 2009. . 110.],[47 - Munitz M. K. Theories of the Universe. Simon and Schuster, 2008.].




2

 


  [48 -       ,  ,      ,     .   ,            ,       ,   ,          . . .],       VI  X,         500       .    ,     .       ,         ,   ,     .

       - ,      ,   ,    .   ,      (735804)    (810877),  ,      VIII IX,           [49 - Laistner M. The Revival of Greek in Western Europe in the Carolingian Age // History. 1924. 9. 177187.].

           ,    ,    .      ,       .               ,               1200 1500[50 - Clark G. Growth or Stagnation? Farming in England, 12001800 // Economic History Review. 2018. 71. 5581.],      ,      .        , ,    ,          ,   ,    ,  [51 -      ,   ,   IIIII.  ..    .. . .]     .   ,     ,       ,             ,       ,     .         ,        , ,    ,  ,        .

            ,   -    ,      .         .            ,  ,       .       ,   ,       ,             .

                .             (. 480525).                  .       ,      .      ,   .      ,       ,   ,       .

  ,   ,     ,         ,           (       ).              ,       ,       ,     .    , ,   ,   ,     ;  []     (. XXIX, 11),       [52 - . :  .  // :  4. .: ; : -, 2000. . 1.   . . 572, 574.].

      ,        .     ,        410.   ,   ,        , , ,   ,     . ,                     .           ,           ,    .

             ,      .         ,  ,         [53 - Nordlund T. The Physics of Augustine: The Matter of Time, Change and an Unchanging God // Religions. 2015. 6. 221244.].        ,           .  :



      ,   .   ,                   ,    .      ,        .     ,            ,   ,                 ? , ,   ;        [54 - . :  . . . 649, 650.],[55 - Gill T. Confessions. Bridge Logos Foundation, 2003.]


       :



,     ,     ,  ,  ,      ,         ,  ?[56 - . :  . Π  //   .  . .: , 1999. . 1172.]


    ,       ,   ,           .


   

 ,          ,     ,   ,     ,   VII.          ,   ,          ,       ,   - IX.           ,  .   , , , ,            ,  ,   - (. 801873)  ,         .  -  -,  X        ,     .      ,      ,    - (9651039/1040)  ,            (. Kitab al-Manazir),              .  ,       .  ,   ,          .                 ,  , ,   ,    ,        .   ,   , ,   , ,          [57 - Al-Khalili J. Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science. Penguin, 2010.].

     ,        ,   ,  ,   .  999         II.     ,     ,        .                   .            ,     ,  ,    .  ,                 .

                     XII XIII.     ,  , -         .      ,        ,    ,   ,     ,     .        ,   .      ,        -   -   ( 980. ,   ),     ,    ( 1126. , ;     ),           .  ,   ,     ,    .

           ,     XII,    XII.     ,        ,       .     IX         ,         ,     ( ) 1257.      ,         ,       .

          .      , , ,  , ,    ,          ,      , ,  ,  .   (11751253),    ,       ,    1220 1235      , ,    .     -   (. 12141292)     (De Scientia Perspectiva)     (De Scientia Experimentali)   ,      (Opus maius),      .       (1193 1206/12071280),        ,       (De Mineralibus),            ,      .  ,        ,    ,    ,   ,   .

            ,           . , ,      ,   12301233,      ,         .  ,   ,      [58 - Dinkova-Bruun G. et al. The Dimensions of Colour: Robert Grossetestes De Colore. Institute of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2013.].     ,  1266,        , , , , ,   ,         , , ,   .

         ,      ,          .              -  ,       840-       -.  ,     ,      ,    : ,             ,   ,   ,       .             ,       .      ,     ,      ,    ,    .      [59 - Hannam J. The Genesis of Science: How the Christian Middle Ages Launched the Scientific Revolution. Regnery Publishing, 2011.],    ,      [60 - Zajonc A. Catching the Light: The Entwined History of Light and Mind. Oxford University Press, USA, 1995. ( .  :      / . . . . .: , 2010.)].

  ,   ,          .     ,          .    ,  7 1277      ,   219,       ,    .    -,         ; ,       ,    ,       .       1277    ,            .

  ,       .     ,   ,         .       .           ,     ,      .          [61 - Meri J. W. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge, 2005.].             -,        ,     .      (12251274).


 

   1225                ,  .     studium generale ,      ,   ,   ,       ()       ( 1135 , ),   .

 ,               .      .         ,  ,   ,    ,   ,      .         , ,   ,       .       ,            .          ,      . ,      ,     .       :       ,      -,   .              ,    1245.

    ,         ,      .    ,         ,       ,   ,     .           :  ,      ,      .   .

    ,     ʸ ,     ,     ,                (Sententiarum libri quatuor)[62 - Lombard P. The First Book of Sentences on the Trinity and Unity ofGod; https://franciscanarchive.org/lombardus/I-Sent.html],       [63 -        XII.               (magister sententiarum). . .].        ,   -, :     ?  ,    ,    , :          ?        ,        ,    ,     .           ,   .                 ,        .

 1259      -  12651274 (    ,      )       (Summa Theologica),       ,        .     ,       ,   ,    ,       ,  [64 -  . .  . .  ..].

           ,           , ,   . ,       ,      .           .  ,        -[65 - . : .  / . . . ..  // :  4. .: , 1981. . 3. . 205.].           (,    ),       :  (  ?),  (   ?),  (   ?)    ( ?).  ,  ,       ,        ,     ,          (. telos).

     ,     ,    ,    telos         ,           .         ,        ,     .       ,     telos      ,   . ,       ,   ,          .     ,           ,           .        ,   ,  ,   ,     ,   ,   .      :  ,        .

    ?         ,      :     ,         .    ,               .      ,      .          ,  ,     ,       (       )    ,              ,  ,   .

                  .      ,    ,          .             ,       ; -     [66 - . :  .  .  1.  143 / . . .. , .. . : --; .:-, 2002. . 27.].  ,    ,       .     ,       ,    [67 -    ,      (   ,   ),    ,    . . .] ,        (10331109).   ,     (  )      -  -  ,      .     ,          ,    .     .  ,      .     .     ,        .


 

               ,        ,        .           ,   .       ,              .          ,             .        ,        ,     .     ,           .   ,          .

         ,          .  XIII       .         ,      ,      .         ,         ,         .

           ,         ,     .     :     ?     -,      ,        .      ,              .  ⠫   ,      ,    : , , , , ,  ..

       ,                .            ,    :   , ,   .     ,     (   ),  ,    ,    ,  , , , . ,      ,      ,      ,  ,     , ,     ,         .    .   ,     ,     ,  : ,     ,        -  -.

        ,          [68 -     ,       . . .] .        ,   :    ( ),    ( ), ,    ().      ,       , ,      .         ,  ,     ,      .

,   ,   ,  ,      , ,   ,     (     ), ,    ,   ,         .     ,           .        ,    .    ,    , ,  ,     .     ,   , ,   ,       .

  ,       ,       ,      ( )  ,      .       .  ,  ( -     ),          ,  -   ,             .       ,    ,          ,    ,      .

    ,       .  ,   ,   , ,  ..,           ,    ,   .    :     ,        .        ,    .      ,         .

   ,   [69 -          . . .]       ,       ,                   [70 - ., : http://www.faith.org.uk/article/a-match-made-in-heaven-the-doctrine-of-the-eucharist-and-aristotelian-metaphysics].     -  ,      ,        ,  ,             ,               [71 - Sylla E. D. Autonomous and Handmaiden Science: St. Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham on the Physics of the Eucharist // The Cultural Context of Medieval Learning: proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Philosophy, Science, and Theology in the Middle Ages-September 1973Springer, 1975. P. 349396.].       .

     ,            ,    ,  [72 - . : .   / . . . . //   :  1. .: -, 2016. . 21.],[73 - Riddell J. The Apology of Plato. Clarendon Press, 1867.].        [74 - ,         ,         . . .]. -,    , ,   ,       .       ,      ,      .

       .   1273,     ,   ,        , ,    ,            ,   .       ,     ,     .




3





   

           ,          .   ,     ,        .       ,    1310 ,     23,       ,        -  .

       -  ,      ,        ,  -        .   , ,  .                (   . clericus,    )   ,     , 

		    ,
		  , , .
		    ,
		      
		     [75 - .  . ..]

 ,     , ,   ,  -  -. ,     ,            ,   ,    ,     .     ,          ,      .     ,    ,  ,  ,   .      ,           ,  .

,      , ,  ,        ,       .          ,       ,       (. town and gown).              ,      ,       .         .  1298            -,  ,  ,   ,     :   , , ,   [76 - Hammer C. I. Patterns of Homicide in aMedieval University Town: Fourteenth-Century Oxford // Past & Present. 1978. 78. 323.].              .                 ,      ,  ,   ,    .    ,         ,          XIV:         ,        [77 - Ibid.].

   .      ,        .  ,      .      ,   ,  ,     ,         .    ,   ,          ,           .              ,        .        :  ,    ,    ,      , ,   ,    .

   ,         .   ,   ,  :    .   ,       ,   .    .




 ,       ,  XIV          .   ,        (Summa Logicae) ,      ,        ,   .        . ,                   .           [78 - Little A. G. Franciscan History and Legend in English Mediaeval Art. Manchester University Press, 1937. Vol. 19.].

         13171319,      .         , , .         .    :   ,  ,       ,     (. reportationes)             .                ,    (. ordinatio).  1320                .           .       ,       (. quodlibets).   1321 1324    .             ,    ,   ,       ,   .






.6.    ,      



        .  ,  -           .    ,  ,   ,    .    ,       .       ,  1317 1322   [79 -       . . .]        (. Libellus contra Occam).   ,           .        ,    13211324,    ,     .   -,       -  ()  (12901349),     .            .  13191320     ,           [80 - Lambertini R. Francis of Marchia and William of Ockham: Fragments From aDialogue // Vivarium. 2006. 44. 184204.].

   ,      ,  ,     ,  ,        ,    ,  ,      .


 

            ,  1277,       ,        .   ,       ,   ,   ,      .

   ,           ,    ,     .         ,        : , ,    ,      .     .      ,   ,     :     .

                 . ,      (12661308)   ,     ,      .   .        , ,   (. Cogito ergo sum),      ,   ,    ,     ,   ,   .

,     ,   ,       .    ,    , ,    [81 -     ,              . . .] (,             ),           . ,      :       (   ),  ,     ,    .       ,          ,  ,   ,      .

          . ,  - ,          -    .    ,      ,    ,     .

     .  ,       .         ,    ,       ,   .  ,     ,        ,        ,      ;    ,         [],    ,        ,       [  ]  [] - [82 - . :  ..,  .. . .: , 1978. .118.],[83 - Leff G. William of Ockham: The Metamorphosis of Scholastic Discourse. Manchester University Press, 1975.]. ,  ,       [],       ,    ,                   ( . nomen  ),        .

        ,              .       .          ,       [84 - . : .    / . . . ..  // :    /  . . .. . .: , 2017. . 75.].       ,        ,     ,    .  ,      ,        ,        ,    [] 煻[85 - . :  .  / . . ..  ..  . . .. . .:  , 2002. .129.],[86 - Tornay S. C. William of Ockhams Nominalism // Philosophical Review. 1936. 45. 245267.]. ,       ,       ,        [87 - Ibid.].

          .          . ,   ,     ,      [ ],   ,     [88 - Loux M. J. Ockhams Theory of Terms: Part Iof the Summa Logicae. StAugustines Press, 2011.].    ,         .             ,     ,         . Ƞ, ,     ,   ,     ,    .    .          ,     .

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    ,        .      ,   ,       ,    .  ,     ,    ,   - ,      ,         .            .  -     ,     .  ,   ,        ,    .

 ,      .           ,        ,   ,  ,         ,    ,    .


   Ѡ

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     ໠    ,   ,    ,  ,       ,   ,       .   ,       ,         . ,        ,      :  -    ,          .               .  ,          ,  : ,   ,    ,     .

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   ,          ,  , ,    .                    .


  

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[ ]     ,  ,   ,      

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               [101 -              ( -     ,       ),     ,           ,     . . .].      ,    .  ,        ,     ,    ,             ,   [102 - Kaye S.M. and Martin R.M. On Ockham. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning,2001.].    XIVXIX   ,   ,    .

     ,  XIV,     . ,     ,      ,   ,      ,   ,   ,       . -  .  ,    ,      ,   ,    ,    .


   

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 1323,       ,       [104 -         . https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/#EnglC 12871324 . .].      ,              , ,        .     1324:    ,      ,       ,      .






      

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  ,          ,   ,         .  1323       .   XXII               .       ,  53 ,        ,        [106 -    ,       ,  ,  ,    .       51      ,  29   .         ,  , ,   ,         22     ,         //  ..,  .. . .:, 1978. . 40. . .].    ,        ,      .

  ,           ,       .   ,     . ,        ,      ,      ?          ,        ,       .

    .     , ,    -       .   , ,   .          ,     ?   ,      ,  ,         .                1324.

      ,      V  -   [107 - Mollat G. The Popes at Avignon: 13051378 / trans. J. Love. Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1963. 3839.].      IV      ,      .        .    -  ,        ,   .    ,         ,    ,    :   ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,          :  ,         , ,       ?[108 - . :  .  / .  . //  . .   / . . . .. .: , 1990. . 340.]       ,       .

     V,  XXII.        ,             .          ,  ,  ,       ,     .

    ,              ;        .      .    ,  ,         .      ,           (De Sacramento Altaris),   .        ,      ,    ,   ,   ,          .      ,     ,      ,     ,  ,      .     ,                 ,    .    ,       :   -        ,           ,     ,   [109 - Brampton C. K. Personalities at the Process Against Ockham at Avignon, 13241326 // Franciscan Studies. 1966. 26: 425; Birch T. B. The De Sacramento Altaris of William of Ockham. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2009.].

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  1325,     ,    ,  ,        .      II       ,          .  1327  XXII  ,           .

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4

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       .            .

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     .          ,       .        ,      ,  800  III            .            ,             .


,  Ƞ

           -,        ,          .      ,   , , ,           .

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,   ,    .   ,   ,  1260      ,  :               ,     .   ,                -.      ,    .       Penitenziagite!,         ![115 -   ,          ,       . . .].

      .         ,       .  ,  ,        ,     ,  ,   (     ,        )   ,    ,   . ,      ,   1300             .

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     ,     ,    ,     ,     ,  .  1305  V    .         ,              .

  , ,     .         .   1306        (  ) .      ,       , ,       .    :          ,     .               .

,      ,  .    ,   ,     ,      ,   .  ,           ,    ,     .


 

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       ,   62         ,   -  .            .    ,     ,    ,        21    .      ,    , ,    .

    . 12 1323  XXII     ,   Quum inter nonnullos,     ,         ,    .  ,     III Exiit qui seminat,       .               ,       -.  ,     ,       ,  ,    ,       .




  

  ,  ,          

  (1329)[119 - de Ockham G. and Ockham W. William of Ockham: A Letter to the Friars Minor and Other Writings. Cambridge University Press, 1995.]

  1324,   ,    , ,   ,       , -    ,    . ,   ,        .         .     ,       XXII.  ,      .    ,      .        .

        [120 -     962. I,      ,    800.  .           ,   .       ,          ,   . . .] IV [121 -    . . .],      . ,           ,      .        ,       1327 -  ,   XXII     ,        , ,      ,    .    ,   ,   ,           ,       .

      ,       ,  .        :        -,     .           .     . ,     ,     ,   ,       ,      .


, ,    

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    12   ,              .     ,                   V.     XXII        ,            .

  1328 ,   ,     ,       , -   V      ,   .          ,    ,     .  ,        ,         .

                    .       ,      .  ,       ,          ,     ,            .


 

          ,  ,             .         ,    ,       ,     ,       ,     ,  ,                .            ,             .      ,       ,      .

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XXII      ,          ,             ,      ,       ,     ,   ,       [125 - Tierney B. The Idea of Natural Rights: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law, and Church Law, 11501625. Vol. 5. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2001.].        ,        ,         .     ,      ,   .        .

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,   ,    ,    ,   .  ,             .    ,     ,     ,         ,   ,     ,  .    ,        .  ,      ,    .     ,           . ,      ,  ,    (   ),      .     ,       -     .     ,    ,   ,         , ,      ,   ,  ,          [127 - Ibid.].

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           ,             . ,    ,      .


 

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   -      ,    :      ()  ,         . ,  ,      ,           ,     .      - ,  ,    ,    ,    .  ,     ,      2:1,     3:2    .     ,       .

           . ,     ,  ,     ,      ,       .      (  )      .        ,      ,       .

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         ,          -,      (.1310 . 1349),   (. 13131373)   (? . 1358).   1330 1350    -,     ,           [140 -      ,         . . .].         [141 - Courtenay W. J. The Reception of Ockhams Thought in Fourteenth-Century England// Ockham to Wyclif, Boydell and Brewer, 1987. P.89107.].           ,        .

,      ,   1335    (Regulae solvendi sophismata)    ,       ,   -  ,          [142 - Goddu A. The Impact of Ockhams Reading of the Physics on the Mertonians and Parisian Terminists // Early Science and Medicine. 2001. 6 (3). 204236.].   ,     , :    ,    ,       ,  ,     [143 - Heytesbury W. On Maxima and Minima: Chapter 5of Rules for Solving Sophismata: With an Anonymous Fourteenth-Century Discussion. Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. Vol. 26.].                   .        ,      ,   , ,   ,         .  ,  ,      ,  ,   ,  ,   .     [144 -     , . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed#Historical_definition  . .],             .


    ܠ 

      ,                 .   , ,   ,          ,  ,          ,    . ,  ,    ,  ,        ,         ,                          .

        ,           .   ,     :                 [145 - . :  .  ,     .],[146 - Barnett L. and Einstein A. The Universe and Dr Einstein. Courier Corporation, 2005.].   , ,     ,      ,      .    ,  ,         ,       ,       ,        . , ,  ,     ,    ,    ,        ,        . ,  ,    ,     .

           ,   ,          ,       ,       .  ,        ,    , , ,         , ,          ,    ,       .     ,  ,    ,  ,      .

     .       .     ,   ,      .    ,           .   ,   ,   .             ,         .       ,     ,  ,   ,    .            ,  ,   ,       .


   ?

          1295 1300.   ,       ,         ,      .  1320           .     ,              .  ,        ,        .

 ,     ,    ,   .         .    , ,     ,      ,     VI.     ,   ,           V,         .      ,  .

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            ,   .     ,    ,     ,    .          ,          ,     .     ,  ,    .  ,          ,       .

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       .    VI     (. 490 . 570)           (),  980.        .  ,    ,      .       [149 -     ( ,  )  . . .]   .

,      ,   ,        ,       .   ,               [150 -      ,     . . .].

   ,       ,   .        ,    ,     ,  ,       ,     ?      ,       ,     .         ,  .

      .         ,       ,          .


  ()

   Ordinatio       ,  ,     ,     , ,   .    ,   :  ,    , ,              ,   [151 - Tachau K. Vision and Certitude in the Age of Ockham: Optics, Epistemology and the Foundation of Semantics 12501345. Brill, 2000.].  ,              .       ,  ,   ,   -  ,        .         .

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     , ,       .     .            :            ,    ,    ,        .    ,      ,   -    ,    .

    ,    .       ,          (. 13201382).      ,   :       V (13381380),      .          .   ,      ,     ,         (.7).

       ,    ,  ,      ,          ,  .           , ,         ,        .    ,        ,    ,     ,      .  ,           ,      ,            ,   .






.7.        .   AC  ,   CD      ,  ,       ADC.  , ,   F      A D,   FDG    ,    AEF, ,   AEGC    adc. ,    ,       ,         



   ,    ,     .                 ,  ,        ,   .       ,    ,     ,             .

 -,    ,     ( ) 1340-   ,       .     ,  ,       XVIII,  XVI.  ,  ,          .


 

 1347      [155 -    ,  XIII  XV.     . . .]   ,    ,     .       ,   .     .     .  ,       .             .          .    ,     1347,           .       ,      ,            .          .            ,     ,    .   ,   ,      ,     .

     - ,             .           ,       .  ,     ,       .    , ,       ,         ,        .   ,  ,  ,       .    .          (Tr?s Riches Heures du Duc de Berry)[156 -      ,   ,    II ,   ,     . . .]     . ,     , -        .     ,       ,    .




6

  


1504, .        ,        (14521519),  .  157    ,       .      ,       1347-  1348-       .   XVI        [157 - Alfani G. and Murphy T. E. Plague and Lethal Epidemics in the Pre-Industrial World // Journal of Economic History, 2017. 77: 314343.].  ,          .

          .           .   1460-       ,      ,      .   ,          ,      ,        -    (          ).  1482   ,                    --- .

           ,       .  1499          ,                 .    ,   80.   ,   (  ) 1504         .                .            .        ,     ,       (  --)[158 - Nicholl C. Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind. Penguin, 2005.].         .

  , ,    ,       ,      ,         ,       , , ,  , , ,         ,      .     ,     1519          ,      .     ,            .

            ,  XIX    .     ,         ,    .   ,  ,    ,  1796,                   ,      .   XX   () (18611916),     ,       ,        ,      ,      [159 - Ibid.].           :  (mano)   ,    []:    (braccio)  ,    ,  [160 - . :   .        //  -  / , ,    .. . .: -  , 1955. . 514.],[161 - Ibid.].     ,    XX   ,     ,     ,           XVII.  ,      XV,      ?

 ,        ,        - . ,  .     [162 - Reti L. The Two Unpublished Manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci in the Biblioteca Nacional of Madrid  II // Burlington Magazine. 1968. 110. 8191.].      ,                , , , ,   .         ,  ,         ,      (De Caelo et Mundo)  .       ,        ,    ,  .                  .    ,     (19031975),  ,      :              ,      [163 - Duhem P. Research on the History of Physical Theories// Synthese, 1990, 83: 189200.]




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61


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63


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64


 . .  . .  ..




65


. : .  / . . . ..  // :  4. .: , 1981. . 3. . 205.




66


. :  .  .  1.  143 / . . .. , .. . : --; .:-, 2002. . 27.




67


   ,      (   ,   ),    ,    . . .




68


    ,       . . .




69


         . . .




70


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71


Sylla E. D. Autonomous and Handmaiden Science: St. Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham on the Physics of the Eucharist // The Cultural Context of Medieval Learning: proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Philosophy, Science, and Theology in the Middle Ages-September 1973Springer, 1975. P. 349396.




72


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73


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74


,         ,         . . .




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.  . ..




76


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77


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78


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79


      . . .




80


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81


    ,              . . .




82


. :  ..,  .. . .: , 1978. .118.




83


Leff G. William of Ockham: The Metamorphosis of Scholastic Discourse. Manchester University Press, 1975.




84


. : .    / . . . ..  // :    /  . . .. . .: , 2017. . 75.




85


. :  .  / . . ..  ..  . . .. . .:  , 2002. .129.




86


Tornay S. C. William of Ockhams Nominalism // Philosophical Review. 1936. 45. 245267.




87


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88


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89


Goddu A. The Physics of William of Ockham. Brill Archive, 1984. Vol. 16.




90


       ,           (       ). . .




91


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92


        ( ),       . . .




93


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94


Sylla E. D. Autonomous and Handmaiden Science: St. Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham on the Physics of the Eucharist// The Cultural Context of Medieval Learning: proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Philosophy, Science, and Theology in the Middle Ages-September 1973. P. 349396. Springer, 1975.




95


Shea W. R, Causality and Scientific Explanation. Vol. I: Medieval and Early Classical Science by William A. Wallace// Thomist: ASpeculative Quarterly Review. 1973. 37. 393396.




96


Leff G. William of Ockham. The Metamorphosis of Scholastic Discourse. Manchester University Press, 1975.




97


Spade P. V. The Cambridge Companion to Ockham. Cambridge University Press, 1999.




98


   ,     . . .




99


Ibid.




100


- (9731048), , ,         ,          []   [  ]. . .




101


             ( -     ,       ),     ,           ,     . . .




102


Kaye S.M. and Martin R.M. On Ockham. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning,2001.




103


Keele R. Ockham Explained: From Razor to Rebellion. Open Court Publishing, 2010. Vol. 7.




104


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105


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106


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107


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108


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109


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110


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111


. 19: 24.




112


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113


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114


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115


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118


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119


de Ockham G. and Ockham W. William of Ockham: A Letter to the Friars Minor and Other Writings. Cambridge University Press, 1995.




120


    962. I,      ,    800.  .           ,   .       ,          ,   . . .




121


   . . .




122


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123


. 1: 26.




124


Leff G. William of Ockham: The Metamorphosis of Scholastic Discourse. Manchester University Press, 1975.




125


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126


Tierney B. The Idea of Natural Rights-Origins and Persistence // Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights. 2004. 2: 2.




127


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128


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129


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130


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131


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132


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133


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134


. : .  // :  4. /. ... .: , 1976. . 1. . 68.




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137


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139


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140


     ,         . . .




141


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142


Goddu A. The Impact of Ockhams Reading of the Physics on the Mertonians and Parisian Terminists // Early Science and Medicine. 2001. 6 (3). 204236.




143


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144


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145


. :  .  ,     .




146


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147


Klima G. John Buridan. Oxford University Press, 2008.




148


Goddu A. The Physics of William of Ockham. Brill Archive, 1984. Vol. 16.




149


    ( ,  )  . . .




150


     ,     . . .




151


Tachau K. Vision and Certitude in the Age of Ockham: Optics, Epistemology and the Foundation of Semantics 12501345. Brill, 2000.




152


Hannam J. Gods Philosophers: How the Medieval World Laid the Foundations of Modern Science. Icon Books, 2009.




153


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154


Shapiro H. Medieval Philosophy: Selected Readings from Augustine toBuridan. Modern Library, 1964.




155


   ,  XIII  XV.     . . .




156


     ,   ,    II ,   ,     . . .




157


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158


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159


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160


. :   .        //  -  / , ,    .. . .: -  , 1955. . 514.




161


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162


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163


Duhem P. Research on the History of Physical Theories// Synthese, 1990, 83: 189200.


