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MELANIE MITCHELL

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

A GUIDE FOR THINKING HUMANS



 Melanie Mitchell, 2019

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               .        (Beeline),        .

       ,    :  -    ,           -  .

           ziminbookprojects.ru










 ,        ,  -         -    .        ,          ()      Googleplex, - Google -,   .  ,     Google Maps.      .

   Google Maps  .     Google Street View,       ,   -  .          ,       ,    Google, ,  ,      Apple.       (   )  :          .

    2014   --,     ,       Microsoft,      Google.  1998  Google     -,    ,      .   Google              ,  Gmail, Google , Google , YouTube, Android   ,     ,  ,   , ,   .

 Google,    ,         ,          Google.            ,        ,  ,       ,   ,     .   Google,        .  2011  Google    ,   Google Brain,        -     ,   Applied Semantics, DeepMind Vision Factory.

 , Google          . Google      .   ,  ,   ,     Google    , Alphabet.             DeepMind:     ,    [1 - A.Cuthbertson, DeepMind AlphaGo: AI Teaches Itself Thousands of Years of Human Knowledge Without Help, Newsweek, Oct.18, 2017, www.newsweek.com/deepmind-alphago-ai-teaches-human-help-687620.].




 蠓


 Google        .          , 1980- ,   Google  .        ,    .   ,      .  ,     Google    ,          ø, , :   ,  : .           , ,     ,     .

  1970-       :   , , , ,    ,      ,  ,   ,    ,        .    ,         .         ,      .    ,                . ,      ,    .     .

  1980- ,  ,    ,   -,          .      ,         .      Scientific American,       .      ,   ,       ,    .                .

      .             ,        .    :    .     ,   1960-        ,        .   Sigma 2,   ,      唠    ,   ,   ,      .    1960- 1970-,            ,     ,        ,       ,    ,      .

     ,        ,       ,   .               (MIT)       ,           .   ,          . ,    MIT     ,          -.

    ,               ,         ,         .     ,   .  ,     ,   Google,         .




    


 ,     ,     (    ).     Google        .       .   ,   ,      .     ,     .      .             Google  ,  ,  :  .  .

   [2 -          ,         Google,         ,     Google.].  ,  1970-,       ,    ,     ,       ,  ,       .              ,   ,  ,       [3 -    . : G.-C.Rota, Indiscrete Thoughts (Boston: Berkh?user, 1997), 22.].  ,    :       Ѹ,     ,  ,   .   ,      ,    ,        ,    .     .                 ⠓        .     ,              (     ),       .

            .    :     ,      ?  ,     .    ,     ,       .     [4 - D.R.Hofstadter, G?del, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 678. ( : .ø. . :    / . . .. : -, 2001.)].

  Google 2014  ,     .     1980- 1990-            .  1957     ,        ,    ,   1970-,    ,          ( ) .          ո,          .  ,     ,     ,        ,    .          ,    .  ,             . ո ,                    .  ո   .

   1980- 1990-         ,        .   -   -:   ,    .   1990-   Deep Blue,   IBM     ,   .  1997                .  ,       ,     .




   


  Deep Blue         ,        . Deep Blue    ,    .    ,           ,  ⠓,      :



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    ,   ,      ,  ,      .    蔠     .    ,    ,     ,       ,          , ,     ,       ,        ,   .  ,         [5 - Ibid., 676.].


                 .

  1990-           ,     ,    .   Experiments in Musical Intelligence (   ),  .       ,       ,       .        -,   .   ,    ,       .                 .

  Google       :



            .     ,   ,          ,     .

         .          ,   .  ,        .  ,      ,   . .   ,        ,  ,      ,    .   .


   ,        ,   -.  ,   ,         , ,   ,  ,  ()  ,     .     :      ,         ໅         ,     ,      [6 - . : D.R.Hofstadter, Staring Emmy Straight in the Eye  and Doing My Best Not to Flinch, in Creativity, Cognition, and Knowledge, ed. T.Dartnell (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 67100.].         ,   ,     ,   .      .

  Google        .  .   :   .  .         .     ,      . ,      ,    .




Google  


         ,  Google,    ,  ,   ,  , - ,     .     Google       ,   ,      ,     ,     . , Google   ,    .       ,  ,     .    .     ,     ,     ,     .   .   ,    ,    ,      .

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     ,          ,   ,  ,   Google.     .              ,       .             .   Google ,     , ,      ,     Google     ,     .

     .  ,        ,    ,    .   ,  Google    ,           ࠓ .   ,         ,    ,            ,       .     ,  ,    ,     .          .   ,    ,      ,       . , ,      ,        ?

          .      ,    ,      ,         .  2014    :         [7 - . : R.Cellan-Jones, Stephen Hawking Warns Artificial Intelligence Could End Mankind, BBC News, Dec. 2, 2014, www.bbc.com/news/technology-30290540.].       ,   Tesla SpaceX,   , ,      ,      [8 - M.McFarland, Elon Musk: With Artificial Intelligence, We Are Summoning the Demon, Washington Post, Oct. 24, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2014/10/24/elon-musk-with-artificial-intelligence-we-are-summoning-the-demon/].  Microsoft     :           ,       [9 - Bill Gates, on Reddit, Jan. 28, 2015, www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/2tzjp7/hi_reddit_im_bill_gates_and_im_back_for_my_third/?.].       (Superintelligence)[10 - . : . .  / . . .. .: ,  , 2016. (    ,    , . .)],      ,  ,     ,   ,      .

    . ,  ,   ,         ,          .      :    ,      .       [11 - . : K.Anderson, Enthusiasts and Skeptics Debate Artificial Intelligence, Vanity Fair, Nov. 26, 2014.].  (     MIT)       ,         ,   ,  ,      [12 - R.A.Brooks, Mistaking Performance for Competence, in What to Think About Machines That Think, ed. J.Brockman (New York: Harper Perennial, 2015), 108111.].         ,      Ȕ           [13 - . : G.Press, 12Observations About Artificial Intelligence from the OReilly AI Conference, Forbes, Oct. 31, 2016, www.forbes.comobservations-about-artificial-intelligence-from-the-oreilly-ai-conference/sites/gilpress/2016/10/31/12-/#886a6012ea2e.].

         .    ,    ,      .     ,    .          ,     .      ,     ,    ,   .        ,    .




   


  ,               ,           .      Google      ,       Google    .      ,     ,               .         ,      .  ,       , ,   ,    :       ,  ,           .   ,        ,      :      ,    ,      .

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      ,      ,   ,    ,    ,          . ,      ,          ,       .  ,  ,    ,     01.   ,      ,        ,    ,        .

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 1955 ,      ,       .           (   )       .           ,           .  ,       IBM,             .  ,   ,            ,     1956    [14 - J.McCarthy et al., A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in Artificial Intelligence, submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation, 1955, reprinted in AI Magazine 27, no. 4 (2006): 1214.].      ,          [15 -     ,           . .N.Wiener, Cybernetics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1961).].   ,     ,    ,  堓 ,     ,       [16 - . : N.J.Nilsson, John McCarthy: A Biographical Memoir (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 2012).].

          .  ,       ,              ,       [17 - McCarthy et al., Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in Artificial Intelligence.].           ,  ,  ,    ,  ,         .

    1956        ,    ,     :  ,            ,              [18 - Ibid.].

  ,  ,       .        ,         ,    .        .       .      ,     ,        [19 - G.Solomonoff, Ray Solomonoff and the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in Artificial Intelligence, 1956, accessed Dec. 4, 2018, www.raysolomonoff.com/dartmouth/dartray.pdf.].           .     .     .       , ,            .  -            .   1960-                 [20 - H.Moravic, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 20.].          :         ,    [21 - H.A.Simon, The Shape of Automation for Men and Management (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 96.].       MIT    ,            [22 - M.L.Minsky, Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 2.].




     


       .         ?                 ,        ,        ?         ?

        [23 - B.R.Redman, The Portable Voltaire (New York: Penguin Books, 1977), 225.].    XVIII        ,            .     ,  , , ,  蠓, -[24 - M.L.Minsky, The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 95.].   ,  ,    .      ,     .

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   ,          .       :   .         (  ) ,     .          ,         ,    ,       ,  .    ,         ,    ,     ,       .

               ,      [25 - One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100), 2016Report, 13, ai100.stanford.edu/2016-report.]. ,  . ,    ,    ,    :  ,   , ,     ,   [26 - Ibid., 12.].  ,  : ,             黔.




 


   1956         .       ,           .      ,                .   ,              .   ,          .          ,     ,        .     :         ,    ,      ,       ,    ,    Ȕ[27 - J.Lehman, J.Clune and S.Risi, An Anarchy of Methods: Current Trends in How Intelligence Is Abstracted in AI, IEEE Intelligent Systems 29, no. 6 (2014): 5662.].

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   1956        .   1960- ,      ,    ,   ,         :     MIT,    ,         . (,               .) ,  , ,   ,   ,            [32 - M.A.Boden, Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 2:913.].  1969     MIT     [33 - M.L.Minsky and S.L.Papert, Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969). (., .  / . . .  .  .:  , 1971.)],    ,       ,    ,         ,         .

  ,    ,     ,    ,    ,  [34 -   ,                   () .].         .        ,      .    ,   ,      ,        ,        ,    ,      .

  ,   ,    ,    [35 - Olazaran, Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy.].          ,    [36 - G.Nagy, Neural Networks  Then and Now, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks 2, no. 2 (1991): 316318.].            ,      :



[]   ,  : ,    ,         .    ,         .          ( )     ,    [37 - Minsky and Papert, Perceptrons, 231232. (. . .  ..)].


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        ,      ,     ,       ,     .   1970-        ,        .

      .          ,           .  ,    ,            ,      ,              ,  ,        ,           [], .            [38 - J.Lighthill, Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey, in Artificial Intelligence: A Paper Symposium (London: Science Research Council, 1973).]




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/melani-mitchell-3188/idiot-ili-geniy-kak-rabotaet-i-na-chto-sposoben-iskus/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


A.Cuthbertson, DeepMind AlphaGo: AI Teaches Itself Thousands of Years of Human Knowledge Without Help, Newsweek, Oct.18, 2017, www.newsweek.com/deepmind-alphago-ai-teaches-human-help-687620.




2


         ,         Google,         ,     Google.




3


   . : G.-C.Rota, Indiscrete Thoughts (Boston: Berkh?user, 1997), 22.




4


D.R.Hofstadter, G?del, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 678. ( : .ø. . :    / . . .. : -, 2001.)




5


Ibid., 676.




6


. : D.R.Hofstadter, Staring Emmy Straight in the Eye  and Doing My Best Not to Flinch, in Creativity, Cognition, and Knowledge, ed. T.Dartnell (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 67100.




7


. : R.Cellan-Jones, Stephen Hawking Warns Artificial Intelligence Could End Mankind, BBC News, Dec. 2, 2014, www.bbc.com/news/technology-30290540.




8


M.McFarland, Elon Musk: With Artificial Intelligence, We Are Summoning the Demon, Washington Post, Oct. 24, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2014/10/24/elon-musk-with-artificial-intelligence-we-are-summoning-the-demon/




9


Bill Gates, on Reddit, Jan. 28, 2015, www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/2tzjp7/hi_reddit_im_bill_gates_and_im_back_for_my_third/?.




10


. : . .  / . . .. .: ,  , 2016. (    ,    , . .)




11


. : K.Anderson, Enthusiasts and Skeptics Debate Artificial Intelligence, Vanity Fair, Nov. 26, 2014.




12


R.A.Brooks, Mistaking Performance for Competence, in What to Think About Machines That Think, ed. J.Brockman (New York: Harper Perennial, 2015), 108111.




13


. : G.Press, 12Observations About Artificial Intelligence from the OReilly AI Conference, Forbes, Oct. 31, 2016, www.forbes.comobservations-about-artificial-intelligence-from-the-oreilly-ai-conference/sites/gilpress/2016/10/31/12-/#886a6012ea2e.




14


J.McCarthy et al., A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in Artificial Intelligence, submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation, 1955, reprinted in AI Magazine 27, no. 4 (2006): 1214.




15


    ,           . .N.Wiener, Cybernetics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1961).




16


. : N.J.Nilsson, John McCarthy: A Biographical Memoir (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 2012).




17


McCarthy et al., Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in Artificial Intelligence.




18


Ibid.




19


G.Solomonoff, Ray Solomonoff and the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in Artificial Intelligence, 1956, accessed Dec. 4, 2018, www.raysolomonoff.com/dartmouth/dartray.pdf.




20


H.Moravic, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 20.




21


H.A.Simon, The Shape of Automation for Men and Management (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 96.




22


M.L.Minsky, Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), 2.




23


B.R.Redman, The Portable Voltaire (New York: Penguin Books, 1977), 225.




24


M.L.Minsky, The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 95.




25


One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100), 2016Report, 13, ai100.stanford.edu/2016-report.




26


Ibid., 12.




27


J.Lehman, J.Clune and S.Risi, An Anarchy of Methods: Current Trends in How Intelligence Is Abstracted in AI, IEEE Intelligent Systems 29, no. 6 (2014): 5662.




28


A.Newell and H.A.Simon, GPS: A Program That Simulates Human Thought, P-2257, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. (1961).




29


F.Rosenblatt, The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain, Psychological Review 65, no.6 (1958): 386408.




30


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: w


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  ,    w


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   1,    w


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31


. : M.Olazaran, A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy, Social Studies of Science 26, no. 3 (1996): 611659.




32


M.A.Boden, Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 2:913.




33


M.L.Minsky and S.L.Papert, Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969). (., .  / . . .  .  .:  , 1971.)




34


  ,                   () .




35


Olazaran, Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy.




36


G.Nagy, Neural Networks  Then and Now, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks 2, no. 2 (1991): 316318.




37


Minsky and Papert, Perceptrons, 231232. (. . .  ..)




38


J.Lighthill, Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey, in Artificial Intelligence: A Paper Symposium (London: Science Research Council, 1973).


