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          .              .        ,   , , , ,      .              ,     ,    ,   . ( )

  PDF A4   .





 

  .     


 ,  ,      



Seirian Sumner

ENDLESS FORMS

The Secret World of Wasps



 Dr. Seirian Sumner, 2022

  ..,    , 2023

    .    -, 2023







* * *



  - :   ?     .      ,     .     ,     .

 ,  ,     (Silent Earth)



,       ,      .

 ,       (Importance of Being Interested)



 ,    ,  .       .  .

 , ,  ,          (All Creatures Small and Great)



   .

 , ,     ,  -  (A Brief History of Everyone Who Ever Lived)



    ,   .          .

 ,    Esquire  GQ Australia







 ,     ,    [1 -  . .].

  (1952)

    ,    ,  ,      .       .         .

  .   .    . , - ,   , -   ,       ,    - .  ,      ,    ,   -   .     .    ,  .

    ,          ,     ,            .         .     :       ,    ?

    .  ,       . ,  ,   ,     ,   ,            .

  ,  ,       ,   , ,   .   . ,       ,          ,    ,      .    .     .     ,   .  .    .  . ,  ,   .  ,   .

    ,          ,         .           ,     .           : ,   ; ,       ; ,         ,         .     :  ,   ,             .

         ,  ( )        ,     .    ,    ( )   :     ?          ?        ?          ,            ?             ?

    ,    ,      .      ?    ?    ?      -    ?  ,        ,  , ,   ,  ,          ,   ,  ,  .     ,         .  ,   ,           ,  ,     .  .  ,    ,     ;      ,   ( ) .

    .  ,   .   ,    .      22000 ,     100000[2 -           (  ,    ),    ,       (  -). . . .].                    .   ,  ,           .    ,          ,            ,    ,      .  ,             .

          ;   ,     ,    ,  . ,  ,                  .              ,       ,       . ,       [3 -   !   ,    , . .],    [4 -        .        ,          ,    .]      .

       ( )    ( ) .         :       ()   ().      ,      ()   ( )[5 -     ,  ,     ,    .  , - ( Xylocopa).           ,    ,       ,       .        ,   . . . .].    ,      ()   ().        ,            .         ,    ;     ,   ,     ;    ,             [6 -   ,       ,        .  ,        ,    ,      . . . .].

   ,    , ,   .       ,     ,   ,    ,   ,         .      ,          ,     ,    ,   .

   ,        :     ,   .     ,    ,      ()[7 -    ,   ,     -.      ,    ,      . . . .],           [8 -                ..       . . . .].              :         ,     ,       .

      :    ,  .        ,          .     ,               .      100000 , ,      ,      ,          .     ໠     -    .        ( ),        (),     .  ,          ,       .         ,         .

    ,       ,    ,     .     ,      ,      .  ,    , ,   ,    , ,  ,         .    ,           ,      .    -   , - ,       .

        Apis mellifera.        ,    ,             ,            .  ,       ,         [9 -              :            ,   . . .].             (Vespula vulgaris),      ,      .  150    , 1-      , ,        . ,            ,  ,      ,    ,   ,     .    ,        .

        350     .     ?    .   ,     .      (   ),        .           [10 -     ,        , ࠫ          . . .],          .           ,     .

  ,      ,     ,   Vespula,           .    ,   -                    .          ,      .      ,              ,    .

           . , , ,  :        [11 -     ,       . . . .] (   !).        (  )    .       ,      .  ,  ,      ,       .    ,   ,     .     ,                    .     ,      .   ,     ,   .   ,  ,     ,  ,      ,   .



                , ,    ?         ;   , , ,      [12 - ,         ( ,         ,      ).     ,     ,    ,      . ,         . . . .].   ,   ;     ,       .      ;    , ,     .        ,           .

 ,       ,      ,            .    1952 ,      ,          ,  , ,     ,    .

   ,             .




1

    


     [13 -  .. .].

 .  

    ? .    .    :       ,      ,  .   ;    ,    .       .    ,  .      .

,  ,    .     ,   ,     ;         .

    .

      .  ,    . ,     ,          .


I

, ,       ,  .  ,     ,   .     ,   !   , :   ?     ?     ?

     ,  ,  ,    ,  , .          ,   .  ,    ,   , -   ( ), ,  ,    ,  ,  ,  .

        ?  .    ? , !

 ,          .              ,        ;    ,     ,       (  )       .      ,    ,        ,       [14 -     .     ,    . . . .].    ,           (     ). ,    ,       [15 - Dhand A.A. City of Sinners. London: Bantam Press, 2018.].

,              5000 -.            ,   :   ,  .        ,      -. ,               . -       -;             - .   ,          ,          .   ,    .

      ,       ,      .     .             1928  . -      1957    ,       ,       ,  ,        .      ,         11 .        (  ).

,   ,     ,      .  2500        (422 ..) ,       ;       ,     ,      .     .             ,          .  ,      .  ,      .   ,   IV     ,     ( 15551559),       :   ,    .          (  )   ,       ,     .

         .    ,       ,           .   ,     :        ,        ,            .

      ,     -.      ,       -:  ,             .         ,         ,     . -[16 -       potter wasps (. -)    ,  . -           . . .]           :            .

  ,  ,   ,           ()    .          ,  ,     .      ,            .         .          1959 -: -    ,      ,        ,   () .

-    ,    .        ,          (     ), , , ,             .   (       )     ;    ,   ,         ,     .     ,        (   ).         -,    -   .








      .  ,     ,           . ,   ,         ,  ,     ,    ;       ,      .      ,   ,   ,        ( Stenogastrinae),  - .   ,  ,     -,        ,   ,    [17 -   -, hover wasps,    . . .].  ,        ,         ;  (   )    ,     ,    .

  ( Vespula Dolichovespula      )       (   ,       ).     .  -   ,   ,   :        ;       ,     .    (         )      .           .

  ,               ,    ,  , ,            .     ,  -        ,        ,             (   ).   ,       ,   , ,       .

,            ,    1984;      ,   ,              .       ,       ,     .     ,      ,  ,    ,  ,    .

 ໠    ,         .   .   .      -,          ,            ,      .       ,        ,      -   ,     .         ,      .                .    ?   ,     ?           ,             .     ,     ,   ,         , ,    .

 ,          ,  : ,          ,    ,       ,     . --!   :  !  ,  !       ,    ?  , ,  ,       , , ,      ,            :    ,           .

   20       ,    .   ,   ,   ,     ,   ,   ,      ,   .       ,    [18 - Sumner S. et al. Why we love bees and hate wasps // Ecological Entomology, 2019, 43(6). P.836845.],   ,     ,        .          ,         ,    .

    :   750              ,  ,    .           ,  ,  蠫.                ,       .    :     ,    (   )  .

   ?    .          :       .            ໠ !     ,    ,     .  ,       : ,        ,   .

    :     ,           ,        . ,   ,     :           .    ,    ,  ,   ,  .    ,      .   ,             .  ,             .

   ,        ,     ,    ?      :    !    [19 -   (. beebomb)          ,     . . .]      ,  !. ,        ,    :             ,  [20 -   Google Trends. https://trends. google. com/trends.].         ,    .      .            ,     .             -  .

,     (Vespa velutina) 2004     .    ,     (Vespa crabro),    .      :        100  ,    ,      .                ;   ,     ,          .

 ,          :     -    ,    (  ,  , Vespa velutina),     Vespa mandarinia         7,5 6- ,      ,      .      40       - .     ,    Vespa mandarinia (  ,    ,    58    ). ,    , ,  :    ,    (   ,      ).             .






,     ()   ().   ,      



    ,              ,   ,               Apis mellifera mellifera     Apis mellifera scutellata.         ,            .  ,            -.           .       -,   .

        .     ,    .          ,    ,           (     ,  Apis mellifera    ).         , -         ,     .                 ,      , -   . Ѡ1970-   .         ,       蠫   .



   ,       ,  ,    ,    .    :      .          .   30        ,   ,               .             ,        ,    .       .

             .        ,       .      [21 -            . . .]             .  1860        :       ,        Ichneumonidae,      .

  ,  , ,        .     -     ,  ,       ,       ,     ,  [22 - Evans H.E. and West Eberhard M.J. The Wasps. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970.].  . , ,          , ,          [23 - Hamilton W.D. Foreword // Natural History and Evolution of Paper-Wasps / edited by Stefano Turillazzi and Mary Jane West-Eberhard. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. P. vvi.].     ,             (  ),        ,        (The Vulgar Wasp)[24 - Lester Philip J. The Vulgar Wasp: The Story of a Ruthless Invader and Ingenious Predator. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2018.].

   ,  ,            ,      ?    ,   ?     ,        ,   ,      .   ,            .  ,     ,        .             ,      .   ,      ,    ,        ,     .

     ,    .      ,     .


II

               [25 -  .. .].    ,           ,              ໠ ,         . Π         ,        , , ,       ,   .       ;        .  ,     ,          , ,   ,     .

 ,  ,    ,  ,    .    : ,     .  ,     -, . .. ,  ,       ,    , -,     .        ,     (1950- ):                 .

       ,       :               387000[26 -    ,              ,  ,    .  -   .].    (,      )     ,  ,    1,5  .  ,                .        ,   ,           ,     ,       .

-     ,     ,        ,          ,    .  ,        .  XIX                   ,    .                .

     (Hymenoptera),       .   150000  [27 - Stork N.E. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on earth? // Annual Review of Entomology, 2018, 63. P.3145.].    80%  ,    80000100000        ,   ,    7     (   13000).            .                 Vespula Dolichovespula, -   ,      .

,      ,      . ,     , ,   ,  , ,  5,5  [28 - Ibid.].            :  ,       (,   ),    . ,         ,            [29 -      ,  .   ,          .           117000;     150000.],   ,    60  88%  [30 - Ibid.].     ,   600000 2,5  .  ,    ,           ,       .

          .    ,     ()     ()  .      ,        .      ,     ,     ,       [31 -        ,           .          . . . .].         ,     ,      .       ,       ,    .         ,   .      :     ,         .         ,   ,                         [32 - Zhu F. et al. Symbiotic polydnavirus and venom reveal parasitoid to its hyperparasitoids // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018, 115. P.52055210.].

     -,  ,   ,  ,    .         ,     . ,           .         ,        ,       ,     .

   80000  .       :       ( Mymaridae),       0,14       . ,    ,       ,       .       .    4200 ,    (,        ):             1750 (   ) 1850,        ,     ,            [33 - Gaston K.J. Body size and probability of description: the beetle fauna of Britain // Ecological Entomology, 1991, 16. P.505508.].

 ,       ,       .      :   ,        !   (,      )        .       :      ,    ,     [34 -       :   /    ( .. ). . .].                   ,     ,      .

      ;     .           ,           ,            .   ,     ,     .       ,   -,          ,     ,       .         .  ,             ,            ,       .            34-  ,   .

----      - -.     1200  (   );             .   34    ,    ,         ,      [35 - Fernandez-Triana J. L. et al. Review of Apanteles sensu stricto (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Microgastrinae) from Area de Conservacin Guanacaste, northwestern Costa Rica, with keys to all described species from Mesoamerica // ZooKeys, 2014, 383. P.1565.].     ,     ,                 Apanteles,    ,              .          19   Apanteles.   4100     186 :     ,     ,     .  ,            .

,     ,    ?   ,   ,       800000  . ,     ,  ----     . ,         ,    .              [36 -     :       ,    .        , ,  . . . .],    ,        -    ,       ,              160000   ,      ,  .

    , ,      .              .      -   ,        -       (   ,   ),  ,     , , -    [37 - Forbes A.A. et al. Quantifying the unquantifiable: why Hymenoptera, not Coleoptera, is the most speciose animal order // BMC Ecology, 2018, 18. P.21.].    ,     80%   ,            .

      ,          .



    .       ,    ,       ,          .      .      ,      ,     ,      .   ,              ,    .       ,    ,       ,         .                .

        :        ,  ,   ,            .         : -          ;         - .   ,      ,       ,    .             .         ,        ;    ,    ,      .        .

      ,     .   - ,   ,  -  ,     ,   . ,         ,      ,          .  ,       ,      ;      ,       ,      ,        .

      (      ),       2000;    280          ,     .   ,            .  ,         ,     ,     :  ,   -               ,    ,       ,            .         ,       .

     , ,            .    ,  -   ,  -                  ().  ,      ,              ,    ,      -,       .    ,       .

              ,          .      ,               .  ,   ,    , , ,    ,       .               ,             .              .           ,              ,              .

          [38 - ,        ,      ,     .    ,      .]



  ,     479 ,       .          :  ,            .      ,     ( )   ( ),            ( ).           (Diptera    ),  (Lepidoptera    ),  (Coleoptera  ),  (Trichoptera  )   (Hymenoptera  ,   ).   280      ,   [39 - Misof B. et al. Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect evolution // Science, 2014, 346. P.763767.].

               .   ,         .             ,     .     Symphyta     symphyton (),        .             ,    ,    .          :  ,         , ,  ,     ,      .         :       ,         8000, ,    , Symphyta       .         :    20,        ;       ,   .                 25   ,    .             ,    .       [40 -           .     (  ):     68,        5. . . .],     ,      .    ,     ,        .

         (Xyelidae),    ;      ,        ,    ,  245  [41 - Ibid.].  -   ,  ,   ,      ,      .  , ,   ,         .      ,    ,    . ,    ,      .       ,           .    ( )  ,     .



 240      ,            .  -, ,     Athalia rosae         ; ,    ,     . ,     -,       .       Orussidae.        :  ,        ,       -.     ,  ,     .    ,  ,    ,   ;          .                . ,      ,  ,    ,     .

  ,          , -   .     ,              :   ,  ,        ,             .         ,             .

    ,       .   ,   ;       ,          .      ,       :  -     ,         . ,               .   :  ,              .  ,     -,   ,    ,        ,          [42 - Oeyen J.P. et al. Sawfly genomes reveal evolutionary acquisitions that fostered the mega-radiation of parasitoid and eusocial Hymenoptera// Genome Biology and Evolution, 2020, 12. P.10991188.].

            .    ,        1%  . ,                 .



       ,  ,       .     ,   ,       ,  247  .            , ,  ,       (, ).       ,   , ,      ,    .           ,         ,      , ,         .

   .

     ,       .      240  ,          ,   ,  .        .       ,    ,       .  ,  ,         ,       .           .                .       (   ,    )   ,            .

       ,         .                               .   ,      ,              .          ,     -     .     ,       .       ,         .                  ,     ,   ,             [43 - Tan C.W. et al. Symbiotic polydnavirus of a parasite manipulates caterpillar and plant immunity // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018, 115. P.51995204.].

        .

  ,          .          ,       .      ,   ,        ,         [44 - Zhu F. et al. Symbiotic polydnavirus and venom reveal parasitoid to its hyperparasitoids // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018, 115. P.52055210.]. ,   ,      ,       .                    . ,    ,           , ,   :  ,    ,  ,    ,    ,       (  )   .       ,      ,   .

            -,        .  900         (Chalcidoidea).     7090  ,       -     .     ,    ( )  ;   ,  ,         ,      ,      ,         .    ,           ,         .   ,  -            [45 - Wang G. et al. Genomic evidence of prevalent hybridization throughout the evolutionary history of the fig-wasp pollination mutualism // Nature Communications, 2021, 12. P.114.],        ,   .

  ,   ,       .   (Cynipidae).    ,       ,    ,     ,    . ,         ,          .     ,      .            :      ,   .  ,    ,        .      (   18)    ,   .         ,           .          [46 - Blaimer B.B. et al. Comprehensive phylogenomic analyses re-write the evolution of parasitism within cynipoid wasps // BMC Evolutionary Biology, 2020, 20. P.122.].

        ,   ,        ,      .         ,    ,        .      .         ,         :             .



   ,      : .        100 ,      ,    .        ,          ,          (Aculeata).              ,       100 ,     ()    .     ,    ,       . ,  ,   ,  ,              [47 -         ,     .   - (, Ophion, Netelia)   , .        ,          ,     .].    .

       ,   ,    :    ,   .     ,           ,      ,         .  ,          ,       :          ,   ,      ,   ,     ,          ,  ,   ,   .   ,           , ,   ,    -.

     190     , ,  -  Chrysidoidea     6500,         .     , ,      (    )   (      ),        Chrysidoidea.           30000  ,          ,     .         :   ,  ,  ,     .     ,   ;   ,    ,   :   , ,   ,  .

        ,    .       ,  ,   ,   .           ,     .       ,   .       ;           .         ,      ,        .   ,     ,    ,   -,             ,   .                    ,   ,           .



           .       ,   (  ),     ,     ,     ,     ,         .                .         ,           .         -            :    ,  ,     ,     .            ,     74.     Vespinae[48 - Huang P. et al. The first divergence time estimation of the subfamily Stenogastrinae (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) based on mitochondrial phylogenomics // International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2019, 137. P.767773.],            ,   ,  65  .        ,     1%    .

    1000  ,      ,    .       .  750          ,      .    (Polistes, Belonogaster, Ropalidia),     , ,     .            - (Stenogastrinae)  - ,             .     , ,        ,   -,     ,    :             ,   ,   ,   .  ,           ,         . ,      ,   , ,            .




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/book/seyrian-samner/tayny-osinogo-gnezda-prichudlivyy-mir-samyh-nedoocenennyh-n-69819757/chitat-onlayn/)  .

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notes








1


 . .




2


          (  ,    ),    ,       (  -). . . .




3


  !   ,    , . .




4


       .        ,          ,    .




5


    ,  ,     ,    .  , - ( Xylocopa).           ,    ,       ,       .        ,   . . . .




6


  ,       ,        .  ,        ,    ,      . . . .




7


   ,   ,     -.      ,    ,      . . . .




8


               ..       . . . .




9


             :            ,   . . .




10


    ,        , ࠫ          . . .




11


    ,       . . . .




12


,         ( ,         ,      ).     ,     ,    ,      . ,         . . . .




13


 .. .




14


    .     ,    . . . .




15


Dhand A.A. City of Sinners. London: Bantam Press, 2018.




16


      potter wasps (. -)    ,  . -           . . .




17


  -, hover wasps,    . . .




18


Sumner S. et al. Why we love bees and hate wasps // Ecological Entomology, 2019, 43(6). P.836845.




19


  (. beebomb)          ,     . . .




20


  Google Trends. https://trends. google. com/trends.




21


           . . .




22


Evans H.E. and West Eberhard M.J. The Wasps. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970.




23


Hamilton W.D. Foreword // Natural History and Evolution of Paper-Wasps / edited by Stefano Turillazzi and Mary Jane West-Eberhard. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. P. vvi.




24


Lester Philip J. The Vulgar Wasp: The Story of a Ruthless Invader and Ingenious Predator. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2018.




25


 .. .




26


   ,              ,  ,    .  -   .




27


Stork N.E. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on earth? // Annual Review of Entomology, 2018, 63. P.3145.




28


Ibid.




29


     ,  .   ,          .           117000;     150000.




30


Ibid.




31


       ,           .          . . . .




32


Zhu F. et al. Symbiotic polydnavirus and venom reveal parasitoid to its hyperparasitoids // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018, 115. P.52055210.




33


Gaston K.J. Body size and probability of description: the beetle fauna of Britain // Ecological Entomology, 1991, 16. P.505508.




34


      :   /    ( .. ). . .




35


Fernandez-Triana J. L. et al. Review of Apanteles sensu stricto (Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Microgastrinae) from Area de Conservacin Guanacaste, northwestern Costa Rica, with keys to all described species from Mesoamerica // ZooKeys, 2014, 383. P.1565.




36


    :       ,    .        , ,  . . . .




37


Forbes A.A. et al. Quantifying the unquantifiable: why Hymenoptera, not Coleoptera, is the most speciose animal order // BMC Ecology, 2018, 18. P.21.




38


,        ,      ,     .    ,      .




39


Misof B. et al. Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect evolution // Science, 2014, 346. P.763767.




40


          .     (  ):     68,        5. . . .




41


Ibid.




42


Oeyen J.P. et al. Sawfly genomes reveal evolutionary acquisitions that fostered the mega-radiation of parasitoid and eusocial Hymenoptera// Genome Biology and Evolution, 2020, 12. P.10991188.




43


Tan C.W. et al. Symbiotic polydnavirus of a parasite manipulates caterpillar and plant immunity // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018, 115. P.51995204.




44


Zhu F. et al. Symbiotic polydnavirus and venom reveal parasitoid to its hyperparasitoids // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2018, 115. P.52055210.




45


Wang G. et al. Genomic evidence of prevalent hybridization throughout the evolutionary history of the fig-wasp pollination mutualism // Nature Communications, 2021, 12. P.114.




46


Blaimer B.B. et al. Comprehensive phylogenomic analyses re-write the evolution of parasitism within cynipoid wasps // BMC Evolutionary Biology, 2020, 20. P.122.




47


        ,     .   - (, Ophion, Netelia)   , .        ,          ,     .




48


Huang P. et al. The first divergence time estimation of the subfamily Stenogastrinae (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) based on mitochondrial phylogenomics // International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2019, 137. P.767773.


